HISTORY FORM FOUR

                                                    TOPIC ONE

                                                   CRISES IN CAPITALIST SYSTEM

Crises: Are deemed to be negative changes in security, Economic, Political, Social or environmental affairs, respectively when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning. More loosely it’s a term meaning a testing time or an emergence event. According to world History , Crises of capitalist’s system brings  major conflicts and problems which affected capitalist in production mainly in Europe and increase exploitation in the colonies in Asia and Africa by the imperialists. These conflicts or problems or crises as well were:-

Ø  The First World War.

Ø  The Great Economic Depression.

Ø  The Second World War.

01. First world war : was a military conflict from August 1914 to November 1918 that involved many of the countries of Europe as well as the United States and other nations throughout the world. World war I was one of the most violent and destructive wars in European history and the general use until a second worldwide conflict broke out in 1939 ( World war II). Before that year, the war was known as the Great War or the World War.

The War begun as a clush between two coalitions of European countries. The first coalition, known as the Allied powers, included the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Serbia, Montenegro and the Russian Empire. The second coalition was known as Central powers, which opposed Allied Powers, Consisted of the Empires of the Germany and Austria- Hungary.

The First World War erupted in Balkan states after Austria -Hungary declared war on Bosnia.  Germany joined the war to help Austria – Hungary, Russia sent an army to fight Germany and Austria Hungary in order to defend Bosnia in 3rd August, 1914. Germany declared war on France on 4th

August 1914. Britain entered the war against Germany which had invaded Belgium. Other areas which were under colonial rule joined the war to fight in support of their colonial masters. E.g. Tanganyika which was under Germany fought Uganda and Kenya which were under the British colonies.

In late 1916, USA joined the war to fight against Germany which had sunk her worship near British island. USA fought in favor of British, Russia and France and withdraws before 1918. USA claimed the fought in favor of safe democracy. The war ended in November 1918 with the defeat of Germany and her allies.

First world war

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The Assassination of Austrian Leader, Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife in June 1914 at Basiman city of Sarajevo by a secret Bosnian terrorist.

Austria sent an alteration to Bosnia (Serbia) demanding Austria officials to be permitted to investigate and punish the assassination. Serbia refused so Austria declared war on Serbia Bosnia in 28/7/1914.

Other countries joined to support Serbia and other to support Austria. Following such assassination Austria- Hungary imposed ultimatum terms over Serbia. But Serbia failed to respond to such terms and hence on the 1st July 1914 Germany attacked Serbia in the course of supporting her ally. But France, Britain, Russia and later USA attacked Germany and Austria-Hungary in order to give support to their ally (Serbia) this led to the outbreak of first word war.

LONG TERM CAUSES

These are causes that took place and prepared ground for the outbreak of war long time ago before 1914.

·         Dissatisfaction over territory arrangement.

Dissatisfaction over territory arrangement. By the 19^th century, almost all parts, of the world were under the big capitalism nations with exception of Africa which also come to be colonized in the 19^th century after Berlin Conference in 1884-1885. However colonial Power newer satisfied with the political

·         Germany Nationalism in 1870’s.

After the unification of Germany, Germany intensified her military hence posing strong challenge to other capitalists nations in Europe especially Britain. Military power enabled Germany to acquire colonies in the world. This led to conflict between Germany and other powers which were also interested in colonies e.g. France and Britain.

·         The rise of rival Military alliances in Europe.

This was the union among imperialist states in Europe in order to obtain collective defense against their enemy states. This means it was the development of Military alliances among the European powers in order to defend each other militarily once they were attacked by other powers, there were two alliances;

·         Triple alliance: Germany, Austria – Hungary in 1879 and Italy in 1882.

Triple entente: Britain, France and Russia. These alliances were enemy to each other and competed in manufacturing of weapons and armies. This situation led to hostility which marked the starting of the war in 1914

·         Development of capitalism into Monopoly stage in 1870’s.

During that time European capitalist were struggling for Economic demands such as raw material, markets, cheap labor and areas for investment. The demand for these gave rise to various forms of struggle which led to fear and conflicts that led to war (First World War).

·         France wanted to regain Alsace and Lorraine which she lost in the Franco – Prussian war of 1871.

The franco-prussian war of 1870-1871 led France to loose her two provinces of Alsace and lorraine which were very potential in production of iron and coal as the result the France economy was badly affected decided to revenge against German for grabbing her precious provinces

 Balkan crisis (1908 - 1913).

The Balkan states particular Poland and Bosnia were demanding political independence from Austria – Hungary which was getting support from Germany. The Balkan states were supported by Russia. The contradiction between Russia and Germany made Germany to declare a war against Russia.

Factors which made first world war to spread World Wide

·         Russian ambitions to occupy Constantinople from turkey in order to allow easy movements of trade strops from the black sea to other parts spread the war in Asia Minor and Middle East.

·         U.S.A role of supplying war equipment’s and loans to Europe made the war to experience benefits from the Americans.

·         Involvement of African colonies to support her European Masters brought war to Africa.

·         The support which has given by Asian colonies to their colonizing Masters brought war to Asia.

THE EFFECTS OF FIRST WORLD WAR IN EUROPE

The war ended in 1918 with the defeat of Germany and her allies. The Victorious nations held a peace settlement treaty called the Versailles Peace Treaty in 1919 near palms. In this treaty Germany was held guilty for causing the war.

POLITICAL EFFECTS.

·         The formation of the League of Nations in 1920 to prevent re-occurrence of another World war. The league was prepared by Woodrow Wilson the president of USA.

·         New nations were formed at Versailles e.g. Serbia and Montenegro became a new nation of Yugoslavia were its capital is Belgrade.

·         Germany was prevented from building warship air planes and tanks. Also the number of her soldiers was limited to 100,000 from 1,000,000.

·         Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

·         Germany had to pay for the war reparation of about 6500 million, to the winners by installment.

·         Resulted to Great economic depression

·         Destruction of economic infrastructures e.g. Industries, banks, roads, railways. This led to unemployment.

·         Debts among the fighting power countries that were fighting since they borrowed a lot of money from USA e.g. Britain 4,277 million, RUSSIA 8349 million, France 2,977 million.

EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON AFRICA

POLITICAL EFFECTS Germany lost her African colonies e.g. Tanganyika was given to Britain in 1921. Rwanda and Burundi to Belgium and South West Africa/ Namibia to the Boers. The shift of colonial power in Africa after the war all German colonies in Africa were formally taken over by the victorious powers in theory each of these new occupying powers held their new territories on behalf of the newly formed league of Nation. They were born by the term of their mandate to safeguard the interest of the African people and prepare them for eventual self-government. In practice the European victors treated their new acquisition much like any other colony

SOCIAL EFFECTS

·         Insecurity among African societies. Many African societies were psychologically affected after they had witnessed their relatives being taken by force to fight for their colonial masters.

·         Death among Africans soldiers and civilians. Many African soldiers lost their lives in the battle (field of war) over work and others due to the out of diseases such as cholera influenza, and diarrhea. It is estimated about 100,000 people died.

·         Rise of communicable diseases e.g. Plague, influenza and malnutrition about 70,000 people died in Tanganyika.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

·         Decline of external trade between the European and colonies because there were no ships which sailed to Europe during and immediately after the war.

·         Destruction of physical infrastructure like railways, roads, harbors ports etc.

·         Destruction of colonial economy production in the settler farms and mines plantations felt because labours were recruited as soldiers.

·         Intensive exploitation of African people because they wanted to recovery their economies which were ruined by the war such as land alienation and forced labor.

·         Decline of overseas trade; -External trade between the colonial and Europe failed because there were no shapes which sailed to Europe during and immediately after the war. Shortage of labour in the plantation areas, European family had suffered a setback with the absence of men at work, in some places farms had been left and their owners, if they survived the war, were usually deported

·         The Great Economic Depression: its causes and impact on Africa.

02. THE WORLD GREAT DEPRESSION

Depression in economic means a period in an industrial nation characterized by low production and sales and high rate of business failures and unemployment. The Great depression - refers to the worst period in the industrial nations characterized by low production, low sale and high rate of business failure and unemployment from 1929 – 1933.

It started in USA and spread to Europe and others parts of capitalist world (colonies) except Russia.

The causes of Great Economic Depression

·         The fall of stock of exchange in USA; this made business to collapse as people were selling their shares and others withdrew their money from industries, banks and farms. Companies could not continue with production neither could they sale their products. They closed business and sack of workers.

·         Speculations. It was the period when people were expecting depression to occur hence they started to produce more goods also in industries and farmers produce a lot of products and as an outcome the depression did not occur and resulted to overproduction of goods which could not be sold, that is high supply and low demand.

·         Domestic over production, there was too much production of goods which was experienced in USA and Europe that lacked market and caused overproduction and low market hence the fall in production in 1929.

·         High protective tariffs by USA made other European countries to impose tariffs on USA goods. This caused piling of goods that couldn’t be sold (over production).

·         Unequal distribution of income. Capitalists paid workers low wages which reduced the purchasing power rate of the working class who were the majority.

·         Less government control of capitalists’ economy. This made markets to be saturated with too much unsold goods. This caused problem of high supply and low demand in 1920’s.

IMPACTS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION ON AFRICA (TANGANYIKA)

·         Fall of wages e.g. Wage of sisal cutter in Tanga fell from 30 TSH per month to 15 TSH per month in 1935.

·         Fall of government revenue e.g. from Tsh 750,000 in 1929 to Tsh 450,000 in 1931/32.

·         Increase in colonial economic exploitation especially in agriculture e.g. increased forced labor, land alienation etc.

·         Fall of price of agriculture products e.g. Price of sisal fell from 32 per ton in 1929/30 to 12 per ton in 1931/32.

·         Massive unemployment due to low prices of agriculture products; many settlers in Kenya and Usambara left their farms thus leaving many workers out of work. 6. Reduction of government expenditure on social services.

·         The effects of Great Economic Depression on Africa had some advantages.

·         To Tanganyika and Africa because they raised people’s consciousness about exploitation thus resulted in Nationalism and the rise of anti –colonial union in 1945.

IMPACTS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION IN GENERAL

·         Financial institution such as banks had no money hence some were closed down.

·         Germany failed to pay for the war reparation to European allies and its debt to USA.

·         Unemployment, many people lost their jobs due to closure of industries and companies.

·         Reduction of wages which reduced people’s purchasing power which cause more closing of industries and unemployment.

·         Fall of production in industries due to lack of markets.

·         Overproduction in USA, Britain and other countries.

·         The growth of Military dictatorship in Europe. E.g. Germany under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party in 1933, and Italy under Mussolini and his fascism party.

·         Economic nationalism emerged where by nations formed united fronts in order to get out of Great Economic Depression E.g. New deal in USA where government provided money and other helps to industries, farmers, banks, in order to continue with production and revive the economy.

IMPACTS OF GREAT DEPRESSION ON AFRICA

1. Intensive exploitation over the Africans. The Africans were forced to provide more so as to maintain income they used to get before the crisis, the government started cutting down the cost of running the government and also through taxation on the Africans the colonial government decided to increase tax on the Africans so as to rise revenue.

2. Unemployment there was massive redundancy of wages labours that particular group faced economic and social hardship.

3. Fall of prices in agricultural crops. The fall of production in Europe went together with the fall of market for primary product, hence the Africans were unable to sell their export crops at reasonable price. Also this led to the fall of agricultural production, planters and settlers deserted their farms leaving them without close settlers deserted their farms leaving them without close supervision. The Africans shifted from cash crops to food crop cultivation

4. Decline of social services. The colonial government cut out services such as education and medical services. The Africans had to pay for those services

5. Depression in economic means a period in an industrial nation characterized by low production and sales as well as high rate of business failures and unemployment. Great economic depression was an economic slump or break down which took pale in 1929-1933. This crisis started in the united states of America (U.S.A) and then spread to Europe, Asia and Africa.

6. The great economic depression was characterized by fall of profit, fall of price of goods, un employment, decline of living standard, closure of banks and decline of living standard, closure of banks and other financial institutions high poverty rate fall of world trade etc.

Measure taken to overcome Great Economic Depression in the colonies.

·         Massive land alienation to produce more raw materials to revive European economy.

·         Settlers were encouraged to conduct research to get better seeds.

·         Colonial government made it compulsory to produce crops e.g. British obliGreat Economic Depression the Suleiman and the Buganda to produce cotton.

·         Increased taxation to set more income.

·         Forced labour was intensified to recover capitalist economy.

·         The Second World War: Causes and impacts on Africa.

03. THE SECOND WORLD WAR 1939 1945.

This was military fighting between the axis power; Germany, Italy and Japan and allied power such as Britain, France, USA and Russia which took place between 1939 –1945.

Second World War started on Sept, 1939 when German invaded Poland. On 3^rd Sept 1923, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

         Figure: impacts of wwII

CAUSES OF SECOND WORLD WAR

Immediate causes of the second World war

·         Hitler’s aggressive policies: - since 1930’s Hitler began to violet the versatile peace treat agreement which accused her to be causative of the first world war and in 1933 German withdrew from the league of Nations ad continued with her aggression of invading other other nations in order to create stronger German and expansion her territories. In 1939 she occupied Czechoslovakia and Poland hence the outbreak of the second world war.

·         Russo- Germany Non-Aggression policy. In 1939, Russia suddenly signed a non-aggression treaty with German that feed Hitler from the danger of the two front wars and agreed to divide East European area particularly Poland between them. This East European area particularly Poland between them. This Strengthened Hitler’s demand upon Poland.

·         Japanese attack on Manchuria; in the year 1931 Japan are invaded the part of China ( Manchuria) and created a new state called Manchukuo. Unfortunately, the league of nation did not punish Japan for her aggression and in 1933 Japan decided to quit the league of Nations. The silence of the league of Nations sparkled terrorism ambitions among fascist nations

·         Ethiopia crisis in 1935, Benito Musolin of Italy invaded Ethiopia, this attempt was contrary to the United Nations charter which required all members to settle their differences through it. Furthermore, Italy with drew from the league of Nations in order to prepare military for the second world war.

·         Hitler’s ultimatum to Poland. Hitler demanded Germany control of a strip of land across the polish corridor, which separated east Prussia from the main part of German when Poland refused these demands, Hitler declared war Poland on September 1939

Long term causes

·         The economic depression during inter war period. in order to solve the problem of Great depression, some imperialist nation allied more and more in exploitation of their colonies like German, Italy and Japan had to for alternatives solutions. In this case Japan invaded Manchurio in 1931. Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 to 1939 while German invaded Holland and Czechoslovakia in 1939, all those moves raised the international concern hence, the outbreak of the Second World war.

·         Formation of Military alliances such as axis power and allied power greatly accelerated the war.

·         Under this treaty the Germany lost her colonies and had to pay for war reparation to the winners. This situation made Germany to demand for the lost colonies through war hence the outbreak of Second World War.

·         Rise of fascism and Nazism. There were ideologies developed in German (Nazism) and Italy (fascism) prestige the Germany believed to be a superior race and wanted to control the whole world. For example. Adolph Hitler (German) and be nit Muslin (Italy) wanted to expand their countries, they wanted to use wars in fulfilling their dreams.

·         Failure of League of Nations to defend world peace e.g. failure to prevent invasion of Ethiopia by Italy in 1935.

·         Germany invasion over Poland to Spanish civil war 1936; German, Italy and Russia used the war to test their weapons and techniques.

·         The impact of Great Economic Depression.

·         Unemployment, high cost of living etc. The imperialists nations replied on colonies to solve this problem so nations with no colonies as such as Germany, Italy and Japan hard to work for the alternative solutions. That is why Italy invaded Ethiopia; Germany invaded Poland Czechoslovakia, Motherlands. All these actions raised international concern hence the outbreak of wars.

·         The failure of appeasement policy. This was a policy adopted by France and Britain while aimed at avoiding war with aggressive powers like Italy and Germans. The war broke because Britain and France didn’t stand against dictators in Italy and Germany.

Impacts of the second world war on Africa

·         Introduction of cash production: -this was implemented differently in different areas such as The Nachingwea scheme delt with groundnuts production, the Sukuma cotton scheme was established for producing cotton all these projects were launched by capitalists in order to compensate their loss economy led by the second world war and to pay back the debts to the United states of America.

·         It contributed to the rise of Nationalism ideologies to Africans -Africans became politically conscious after the return of Ex-soldiers from war who acted as the catalyst on leading people to struggle for Nationalism as they had acquired many skills and tactic hence they had to apply them for the Liberation of their nations and fellow Africans

·         Increase of exploitation in Africa; - Apart from introducing Agricultural schemes also they created marketing boards, increase of taxation, land alienation, intensive forced labour, low wages and long working hours. All these were applied by capitalist nations to revamp their economy that were badly affected by second world war

·         It led to the rise of USA AND USSR as the world economic powers. Both USA and RSSR played a significance role in the decolonization of Africa through different approaches for example USA propagated for Nationalism of Africa in order to get an access of exploiting Africa through Neo –colonialism while USSR on its side supported the Africa through Neo-colonialism. While USSR on its side supported the Africans freedom fighters both morally, materially and technologically, this is because USSR under socialism policy they believe on equality.

·         Fall of African economy; - this was triggered by the recruitment of Africa energetic people to war, while are the ones who were the main producers. Following the fall of African economy many African facilities collapsed and let to dependence nature economy to many African countries.

·         Depopulation of African people. The number of African people decreased since some died on the battle while fighting as recruited soldiers, some died of hunger and starvation as there total unrest during the war as producers were recruited as soldiers hence there were no production also commutable disease, like cholera, diahorea, influenza small pox etc. killed many people.

                                          

                                                   TOPIC TWO ECOLONIZATION

                                                                       NATIONALISM IN AFRICA

The term Nationalism refers to as a movement or feeling based on common cultural aspiration that bind people together and finally leading to national Independence.

Nationalism in Africa ( African Nationalism)

It was a desire of African people to rule themselves without being governed by the foreign people ( Western countries). During that time most of Africans wanted to be free from Europeans domination over African continent. By the mid of 19^th  .It Was an action in which Africans struggled to dismantle colonial rule and gain self-independence.

IMPORTANCE OF NATIONALISM

It brings the sense of unity amongst African ethnic groups i.e. through the formation of political movements to free for the formation of modern African Nations under single government. It dismantled all the evils of European capitalism that drawing the early year of Independence. It brings political awareness to most of African people against economic exploitation done by the Europeans. It rejected capitalist occupation and finally Africans achieved Independence and self rule. It was Pro- African culture. This means that all political movements brought Africans to be able to govern them under African leadership (Administration).

These were internal grievances that emerged after the establishment of colonialism and economy. These affected Africans economically, socially, politically and culturally.

·         Political factors: Destruction of traditional setup and evolution is denial of representation in legislative council, destruction of traditional African kingdoms and chief- doms made Africans to find how to regain their political freedom

·         Social factors: Discrimination and segregation of African in all social aspects such as education, healthy, transport and communication water services etc. made Africans look for freedom.

·         Economic factors: Colonial exploitation. African were exploited through land alienation, forced labor, low wages, bad working condition and high taxation all those made African to start Nationalism.

·         Cultural factors: European colonialist denounced African traditions such as polygamy, dances, religions, and women circumcision. These precipitated Nationalism struggle by the Africans.

·         The role of colonialism education: These produced educated elites or Nationalistic leaders such as Julius Nyerere and Kwame Nkrumah who mobilized their fellows to fight against colonialism.

·         Italy–Ethiopian conflict: The defeat of the Italians by Ethiopia in 1935 gave Africans more confidence in struggle against colonialism,External factors which influenced Nationalism.

·         The impact of world first world warand second world war.

·         Africans ex-soldiers learned military techniques and become leaders because when they came back they were in the forefront in mobilizing their fellow Africans to fight for independence.

·         The rise of UNO: This pressurized the colonizing powers to permit people to rule themselves and supported Nationalist leaders e.g. J.K Nyerere.

·         Independence of Ghana 1957; created awareness to other African countries to struggle for independence.

·         The Bandung conference which held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955 declared colonialism in its all manifestations is an evil which should be put into an end. It called upon the colonizing power to grant independence to colonial people. The conference created solidarity among the nationalistic movements.

·         Independence of Indian 1947.

It was very important to Nationalistic struggle in Africa because Africans learn that;

Ø  The independence could be won peacefully.

Ø  There is potential in Nationalistic.

Ø  Many congresses similar to those of Indian were formed in African.

Ø  African Nationalists leaders learn a lot from Mahatma Gandhi of India.

FORMS OF NATIONALISTIC STRUGGLES IN AFRICA.

From 1919 –1940s Nationalistic struggles changed from wars of resistances to formation of social welfare associations.

SOCIAL WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS

Meaning of Social and Welfare associations.

Social and welfare associations were groups which were formed by Africans who were working in different sectors of colonial economy such as agriculture, industries.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF SOCIAL AND WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS.

Social and welfare associations were formed to remove;

Ø  Colonial exploitation.

Ø  Colonial discrimination.

Ø  Poor working conditions.

Ø  Low payment. Forced labor.

Ø  Land alienation.

All these affected the members of the group.

The major aim of social and welfare association was to create colonial government that would respect Africans’ rights rather than demanding for independence.

The rise of Protest and religious Movements.

The following were the forms of social and welfare Associations

A. INDEPENDENT CHURCHES/RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

- These were churches which were made by Africans out of churches formed by Missionaries.

- They opposed European church leaders who discriminated African church leadership and despise African customs like polygamy and female circumcision.

- They also opposed land alienation, forced labor, involvement of Africans in European wars.

Examples of independence churches were, Kikuyu independent church formed in 1929 by David Maina (Kenya), Watch tower church and African National Church-Tanzania, Province Industrial Mission Church formed by John Chilembwe in Malawi.

Factors for rise of independent churches.

Missionaries didn’t value and accommodate African ways of worship. Africans regarded Missionaries as agents of colonialism. Africans were upset by Missionary teachings which were against African traditions and customs. Colonial exploitation such as forced labor, taxation and discrimination in the provision of social services.

STRENGTH OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES MOVEMENTS

·         Helped to convey message of freedom.

·         Created unity to all Africans to fight for their rights.

·         Drew attention to African grievance e.g. political and social injustices.

·         Stimulated moral and courage towards fighting for National independence.

·         Made Africans aware of European exploitation.

Therefore, African independent church played great role in the African struggle for independence.

WEAKNESS OF INDEPENDENCE CHURCHES.

·         They faced strong opposition from the missionaries and colonial government. - African church leaders were arrested and some churches were closed.

·         They lacked well trained personnel to run the church efficiently.

·         They lacked enough funds because they depended on few follower’s contributions.

·         They faced constant competition from Missionaries for followers.

B. WORKERS ASSOCIATION/TRADE UNIONS.

These were formed by workers to address their grievances such as low education, low wages, poor health facilities, lack of representatives in local council and discrimination at working places.

Example of workers’ Associations, Tanganyika Territory civil servant Association (T.T.C.S.A), Formed in 1922 in Tanga by Martin Kayamba. African association 1929 which became TAA- 1948 Kenya.

These demanded abolition of Kipande system, decrease hut and poll tax, exclude women in taxation and eliminate force labor. Kikuyu central association formed in 1924 by Joseph Kangethe. Its demands were

It condemned missionary church which prevents female circumcision. In 1928 Jomo Kenyatta became its secretary.

C. TRIBAL ASSOCIATIONS.

- These were ethnic organizations formed by member of a certain tribe to address specific grievance in tribe such as poor health, education and absence of representatives in local council.

D. PEASANT ASSOCIATIONS

These were formed by farmers to air their grievances e.g. Low price for their crops.

Example Kilimanjaro native planters association formed by Joseph Merinyo in 1925.

Kenya nationalism was dominated by the rise of political parties and the emergence of Mau Mau freedom fighters.

                                                TOPIC THREE

RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM AND POLITICAL PARTIES IN AFRICA

Meaning of mass Nationalism

Mass nationalism is the mass feeling and attitude of demanding independence by using a nationalist struggle in form of unified parties beyond the class, tribe or ethnic back ground

Reasons for the rise of mass nationalism

The following were the reasons for the rise of mass nationalism

·         Religious, the colonial government and other Europeans living in Africa were strongly against African traditional beliefs and forced Africans to join Christianity through their missionary teachings.

·         They used their education and other skills acquired from the colonial system to demand independence and rebelled by formulating to know how to read, write and simple arithmetic while they maintained their African Cultural practices. Examples of independent schools are those formulated by the kikuyu in Kenya

·         The colonial governments denied African the right to rule themselves. The colonial governments used puppet African chiefs as African political leaders, hence majority of Africans were deprived of the right to elect their leaders democratically.

·         The colonial governments introduced harsh and forced tax payment procedures to the Africans. African workers were over exploited through payment of very low wages and salaries that made them live in devastating conditions. For example in Mozambique and Tanganyika messengers, teachers, clerks and soldiers worked in poor conditions and were lowly paid.

·         The over exploitation of Africans by the colonial governments, After the end of the second world war, the colonial governments emphasized on the use of forced labour as an effect of the great depression which affected their economies in their home countries Great depression which affected their economies in their home countries.

POLITICAL PARTIES IN AFRICA

The strengths of political parties in Africa

·         The use of peaceful means to fight for independence unlike armed struggle which led to loss of many African lives and property destructions.

·         The political parties arose awareness among different groups of Africans- This was done through political rallies, propaganda newspapers, and organized boycott for example CPP of Ghana encouraged Ghanaians to boycott the colonialists.

·         The political parties had a major duty of unifying the masses to fight a common enemy, which was colonialism. The political to fight a common enemy, which was colonialism, the political parties used youth and women to unify the masses at the grassroots to fight their common enemy. For example, CCP of Ghana under Nkrumah and TANU of Tanganyika. They had youth and women groups to support them in fulfilling their goals of bringing independence.

Weakness of political parties in Africa.        

·         Many political parties faced financial constraints, this was due to its members who were poor and unable to contribute the money required for various political activities.

·         Political parties lacked the support of other organizations such as women, youth, farmer associations in their move of propagating the decolonization process in Africa.

·         The colonial government crated restrictions to political parties. They created restrictions in order to limit their activities and slow down the decolonization process. For example, the British colonial government restricted government workers from being members of TANU in Tanganyika.

·         Opposition among political parties within individual African countries, each political party competing against the other to the extent of conducting campaigns against the other instead of joining hands in fighting their common enemy. The major causes of such rivalry were ethnism, regionalism.

I.                    KANU (Kenya African Union)

Was formed in 1944 by Eliud Mahu a member of Legco. It demanded increase of African representatives in legco; then Harry Thuki became the chairman but handled over the leadership to James Gichuru in 1945. In 1946 Kenyatta became the pre salient of the party. The party was mainly Kikuyu and had no strength beyond the central province. It was not possible for KANU to mobilize many people who were not literate and European hated many people who were not literate also European hated the party. The party was burned in 1952. Mau Mau was armed struggle against the White settlers in Kenya in 1952-1960 aimed at bringing independence quickly. The group was stated by KAU extreme must and ex-soldiers by the colonial government so African fought to remove such oppressive actions over them.

Causes of Mau Mau Movement In Kenya

·         Taxation imposed on African led to the outbreak of Mau Mau. The people were highly taxed and those who failed were punished British learnt a lesson that their administrative created grievance and discontent among the African.

·         Land alienation: Colonial government alienated African land and gave it to the European settlers for production of cash crops and settlement. This made Africans to fight for the lost land.

·         Forced labour; Africans were forced to work in settler’s farms colonial government ensured constant supply of African labour by passing various labour ordinances e.g. Native master relation labor ordinance of 1921 which required African to carry identity –Kipande system to show completion of a task in settler’s farm. This annoyed Africans.

Effects of Mau Mau Movement

·         It created fear and worries of being killed especially in the central province where most fighting took place.

·         Mau Mau forced the British to speed up independence to other colonies e.g. Tanganyika.

·         Depopulation More than 13,000 people- Asians, civilians, Europeans and freedom fighter lost their lives.

·         Many people were forced into reserves and detention camps where they suffered harsh treatments and bad living conditions.

·         It brought high costs amounting to pounds 50,000 to Kenya colonial government and the British as underground movement in Nairobi in 1946.

The Mau Mau group was annoyed by slow pace of constitutional change and the settler declaration in 1950 that “we are here to stay and all races must accept that and all it implies”.

Aims of MauMau Movement

Ø  To bring Kenya independence as soon as possible.

Ø  To speed up writing of a just constitution.

Ø  Ending alienation among the Kikuyu.

Ø  To kill all Europeans and Africans who support them.

Participants in MauMau Movement

Ø  Leaders –Waritiu Otote –General China

Ø  Dedan Kimathi

Ø  Jomo Kenyatta

Ø  Others were;

Ø  Kikuyu waged laborers, ex-soldiers from WWII and other dissatisfied groups.

PROBLEMS/OBSTACLES THAT HINDERED THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA.

Ø  Tribalism among the Africans divided Africans in the fight for independence. Political parties such as KANU and KADU were formed in tribal basis.

Ø  Settlers opposition Nationalistic struggle; settlers opposed nationalistic struggles because they feared that once Kenya became Independent, Africans would grab their land.

Ø  Personality clashes between leaders in some political parties.

             DECOLONIZATION THROUGH CONSTITUTIONAL/PEACEFUL MEANS

Meaning of decolonization through peaceful means. This refers to the process of independence struggle through peaceful means that is without the use of armed struggle. Some African countries which used this means were Tanganyika (now Tanzania), Uganda, Gold coast (Ghana)

A.      TANGANYIKA (TANZANIA)

The conditions which facilitated constitutional/peaceful struggle for independence in Tanganyika were as follows

Ø  The wide use of Kiswahili as a lingua franca throughout the country. Kiswahili was spoken y a large population in Tanganyika. Therefore, it eased communication and brought unity among the people of Tanganyika.

Ø  Tanganyika was a mandated colony under the British since 1945 thus a UN delegation had always made follow up to ensure that Tanganyika was prepared to be self-governing.

Ø  The role played the mass media such as SAUTI YA TANU newspaper which was very much used by TANU to spread its policies and mass mobilization enabled TANU to have mass support not only in the urban center’s but also in the remote areas where there was some literacy.

The problems experienced during the struggle for independence in Tanganyika

·         Opposition from other political parties like ANC and UTP. United Tanganyika party ( UTP) preferred racial parity in making the government while TANU was against that. TANU was based on the general interests, such as cattle tax, terracing and destocking. TANU called for democratic election of the legislative council (LEGCO) and demanded democracy.

·         The British colonial government made everything possible to ban TANU by calling it an illegal movements. The civil servants were also prevented from joining the party. The colonial government sponsored the formation of reactionary organizations such as United Tanganyika party (UTP) which was formed by the chiefs and Europeans in 1956. United Tanganyika party claimed that independence was not necessary, but Tanganyika should continue its affiliation with the colonial power.

DECOLONIZATION THROUGH ARMED STRUGGLE

Armed struggle is the struggle for freedom through the use of weapons. It was the way which were applied by some African countries during the struggle for political independence. African countries like Kenya, Algeria and the former Portuguese colonies like Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Angola got their independence through armed struggle.

Some African countries used armed means in their independence struggle. Among those countries are Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia), Kenya and Mozambique.

REASONS FOR THE ARMED STRUGGLE

The following were the reasons for the armed struggle for independence

·         The colonial regimes were un popular among the people. Therefore, the African people used various methods including the armed struggle in order to regain their lost freedom

·         The colonial power did not want to abandon their colonies as they viewed them as overseas territories. For example, Portugal regarded Mozambique as one of its overseas territories. The colonialists to grant independence to their colonies.

·         The colonial powers were not ready to freely grant freedom to countries like Kenya, Algeria Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau

·         The colonial powers rejected the UNO and OAU instructions to grant independence to these countries. Therefore, the only solution to attain independence was through the armed struggle because the settlers and their activities of land alienation and forced labour were not ready to leave their plantations in the colony.

·         Colonial power granted Independence to the minority for example in the case of Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in the southern Rhodes(Zimbabwe)

DECOLONISATION THROUGH REVOLUTION

Revolution is the process of removing the existing government. OR Is a discontented reaction through violence exercised by the majority of the country population in order to gain recognition or reform when legal and moderate means of political or social change fail.

The known African revolutions are the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964 led by John Titto Okello, the Egypt Revolution of 1952 led by Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Zanzibar revolution began in Mid 1950s. Before that there were associations which did not press for independence but welfare of different races that lives in the Isle.

Associations before Mid 1950 were based on races e.g.;

·         Africans association formed in 1934, it was affiliated to Tanganyika association.

·         Shiraz association formed in 1939 in Pemba to speak for African population like Timbuktu, Hamidu and Pemba.

·         Arab association was formed by Arab rich families against the British to press for compensation to the Arab slave owners after abolition of slave trade.

·         The Indian association.

After 1955 the people of Zanzibar formed political parties to struggle for independence. This was due to economic hardship and crisis in marketing cloves after WWII and colonial exploitation.

The political parties that were formed during struggles for independence were;

·         Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party (Z.P.P.P) was formed in 1959 by Shiraz racial group that had conflict with people of Mainland origin and ASP. It was formed by Mohamed Shante and Musa from Pemba and Tajo from Zanzibar

·         Afro –Shiraz party (A.S.P) it was formed out of African association and Shiraz association in 1957. Sheikh Aman Karume was the chairperson and Thabit Kombo was a secretary. - It was a racial party because it was supported by Africans from Zanzibar and mainland.

·         UMMA Party; formed in 1963 by Abdurrahman Mohamed Babe, after splitting from Z.N.P.

·         Zanzibar Nationalist party (Z.N.P) formed out of Arab association by Sheikh Al Mahsin Barwan 1955. It demanded Multiracial Zanzibar in order to get support from the Africans majority but in principal it served the Arab Minority.

The Zanzibar Revolution.

Zanzibar revolution was a complete overthrow of the Arab government by the Africans who were subjected to it. It was a fundamental alteration of principle and practices of Arab Sultan government by the African people.

The Revolution was organized by the ASP under sheikh Aman Karume with the support from Umma party under Mohamed Babu in 12 Jan 1964.

The group of armed people who physically took part in revolution was led by John Okelo –a Lango young man from Uganda. This was secretary of A.S.P young wing in Pemba.

The group attacked the new government and Sultan by surprise. It succeeds to capture the police amour in Ziwan then radio station, custrus, airports, post office, hospital and the prison at Mazarin by using knives, axes, hammers, bows and arrows. The armed men got guns after capturing the police station.

The sultan escaped to Mombasa and many officials were killed. Mohamed Shamte went into exile in Arabian. The revolution was successful in Sunday morning 12 Jan 1964, the revolution government was set up with Karume as the president and Hanya the Vice president, Babu and others Asp members were ministers of the new government.

Aims of Revolution.

·         To eradicate British colonial interest and destroy capitalism in Zanzibar.

       To adjust social and economic inequalities between the African Majority and the Arab Minority.                     To remove Sultan domination over Africans in Zanziba

     To bring socialism in this there will be no exploitation of man by man.

Causes of revolution

Zanzibar attained its independence in Dec. 1963 from the British. Africans under ASP-(Afro Shiraz Party) recognized that independence granted in 1963 was a way for Arabs. Africans had still to struggle to win Independence. This is war forced Revolution in Jan 12 1964.

Main causes

·         Land alienation problem: - Arabs owned large portion of fertile land and employed Africans as labours in cloves and coconut plantations. The Africans became helpless peasant, Fisher men and squatter in Arab farms. This facilitated revolution.

·         Exploitation of Africans by the Arab’s government: -  Africans were dissatisfied by Arabs Mass exploitation so they decided to overthrow the government.

·         Economic difficulties caused by the World wide drop in price of cloves: - This made government to reduce expenditure on social service, schools were closed, teachers became unemployed and medical facilities were cut down. This gave rise to group of unemployed who were suffering peasants to join and over throw the government.

·         Monopolization of trade by the foreigners i.e. Asians monopolized commercial life in Zanzibar thus made people to fight.

·         British colonial legacy: - The British left the Arabs to dominate all key sectors because they were their friend and puppets. Africans were less favored in employment opportunities example in civil services etc.

·         The role of John Okello:- he mobilized people to do surprise attack and maintain secrecy.

·         The election result of 1961 and 1963: -These elections were not fairly conducted on the side ASP. The Africans were not satisfied with these elections which gave power to Arab Minority hence they decided to overthrow the government.

·         Discrimination of Africans by the Arabs, Africans were not treated equally with the Arabs.

Benefits of Zanzibar Revolution.

·         It manages to uphold the African dignity

·         managed to bring African independence

·         promoted unity and solidarity among the Africans

·         The Africans who had lost their land got it back. The government nationalized plantations and distributed among Africans to grow crops.

·         The government built schools and colleges to provide educated freely up to university level.

·         The government promoted peoples’ participation in government, hash ranking jobs which were held by the Arabs were given to Africans. To date the head of government is African.

·         The union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar 26 April, 1964.

·         Strengths of the Zanzibar Revolution

·         It removed the colonial regime from power by force

·         It managed to adjust the social and economic inequalities in African country

Weaknesses of decolonization through revolution

·         Low level of consciousness and political awareness

·         Lack of clear political structures for movement organization.

·         Loss of lives during revolution process some people loose lives this is due to the use of dangerous weapons during the struggle that resulted to bloodshed.

·         Destruction of properties, such as infrastructures like offices and houses.

·         Fear and insecurity

·         Lack of patriotism

                                             TOPIC FOUR

CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE.

Political Change: Is anormal function of internal and external politics. Rulers will be voted out, retire, or die, while in power and the new leader will make changes. The more powerful countries will anticipate political change and make the process clear and smooth.   While,

Social change: Is an alteration in social order of society. Social change may include changes in nature, social, institution, social, behavior, or social relation.

Economic Policies: Refers to shift or change in basic ways a market or economy functions or operates structural change is possible because of dynamic nature of the economic system patterns and changes in sectoral employment drive demant shifts through the income elasticity.

Reasons for introduction of ideological, political and administrative changes: -

·         To destroy capitalism. Ideological change insisted the need for people to work together and share the product of their work equally. Administrative changes were effected in order to organize the government pots and civil service so as to provide employment to Africans hence to get money to afford basic needs.

·         Administrative changes brought true independence because it eliminated the white workers who were the product of colonial rule.

·         To look for unity among the Africans in order to bring unity. Many African states introduced mono-party system.

·         To eliminate social problems especially poverty which was inherited after independence; when Africans lived in poverty without education, health services, water and electricity. This needed ideological changes which require government to take responsibility of giving service to its people and reduce poverty.

·         To address issues such as land alienation, labor, laws, taxation etc.

·         Political changes: This was introduction of new political systems that could govern the newly independent countries.

There were so many political changes but the following were the main ones. These were;

Ø  Introduction of single party system

Ø  Military rule/government

A.       Single party system.

This was introduction of one party system to replace the multiparty system inherited Independence.

In Tanganyika the decision to create single party system reached in TANU NEC of 1963 and 1965 the constitution was amended and Tanzania became officially single party countries.

Reasons for the Introduction of single party system.

Ø  Promote equitable development in the country as all people all over the country belong to the same party.

Ø  It was introduced to eliminate political parties that showed interest to protect colonialism during the struggles for independence e.g. U.T.P in Tanganyika allied with British leaders feared that such parties would overthrow the government of newly independent nation.

Ø  Traditions were similar to African traditional culture where Africans were ruled by one king/chief.

Ø  Unity; single party system promotes unity among the people. Many parties disunited people and even brought conflicts among the people based on religion, region or ethnic considerations.

Ø  The rise of new ideologies; many African countries adapted socialism after independence. Socialistic ideology favored centralization of administrative power in the hands of single party.

Ø  Greedy for power among few African leader who wanted to rule for many years without being taken out of the post by political party.

Ø  Promote development of all people; people’s effort be concentrated in development rather than in politics.

WEAKNESS OF THE SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM.

·         Lack of enough checks and balance on government and so encouraging management and corruption.

·         Led to abuse of power

·         Encouraged authoritarianism due to lack of competition in politics i.e. only few people in the country dominate decision making without allowing any critics.

·         Suppress diversity of opinion which endangers development.

DECLINE OF SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM IN AFRICA

REASONS FOR THE FALL OF MONO-PARTY SYSTEM.

·         Economic decline in most countries with single party system in 1970s and 1980s.

·         The rise of USA as a sole super power.

·         People opposed the system of mono-party which worked against democracy and human rights e.g. Right to vote, right of expression and association.

·         The collapse of U.S.S.R (United Soviet Socialist Republic) in 1980’s. The system couldn’t get support from this super power any longer.

·         Donor countries such as USA, British, and Germany didn’t support the system.

B.       Military rule/governments

Military government is a form of government where soldiers/military took over control of the government instead of elected civilians.

The process where by a group of Military/soldiers took over the control of the government is called “coup d’état”. Coup d’état is a French term which means “overthrow of the state”. A number of African countries came under Military rule within a few years after independence e.g. Egypt in 1952, Sudan in 1956, Nigeria 1966 and Uganda 1971.

Reasons for Military rule / coup d’état / political instability just few years

Ø  Lack of National unity; colonialists put together different tribes to create modern Africa. This made it difficult to form unity with such diverse tribes. This created conflict hence army to take over e.g. Hutu and Tutsi of Rwanda.

Ø  The policy of Divide and rule imposed by colonialist created divided society.

Ø  Weak political parties which failed to defy the ruling government learning the Military as the only organ that can defy the government.

Ø  Colonial legacy. Most colonial government did not leave behind African political system capable of running stable government.

Ø  Corruption and embezzlement of public funds by the African presidents who took over after independence. This made the army to take over.

 The Reasons/Factors Which Led Africans To Change Their Social, Political And Economic Policies

SOCIAL PROBLEMS:-

·         POVERTY, After independence and current, many African countries and its people were poor despite of plenty/richness of natural resources.

·         POOR PROVISION OF SOCIAL SERVICE, After independence African countries had no good access of social service such as health centers, education, water, housing etc. as a result of poor provision of social services by colonial government.

·         TRIBALISM, After independence Africa had problems of tribalism that is many Africans were disunited and separated basing on tribal differences.

·         DISEASE, Africa countries also were faced with diseases such as communicable diseases, infection diseases like TB, cholera, Malaria etc.

·         IGNORANCE/POOR EDUCATION, After independence Africans were ignorant/illiterate due to poor education provided by colonialist hence African countries had to change their social policies to solve that problem.

POLITICAL PROBLEMS (CHALLENGES)

• BORDERS CONFLICT

Many African countries after independence were facing borders disputes which led to misunderstanding among member states e.g. Tanzania Vs Malawi, Sudan Vs Southern Sudan.

• COUP D’ ETAT (Overthrown over government)

African countries after independence and currently experienced many military governments came into power after overthrown the ruling government e.g. Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Liberia, Ivory Coast etc.

·         CIVIL WARS

Many African countries had civil wars among themselves which created fighting and social unrest e.g.; Congo, Somalia, Sudan and Libya.

·         POLITICAL INSTABILITY

Many African countries were not stable due to civil wars, tribalism, poor leadership and political parties’ pressure e.g. Egypt, Libya, Sudan and DRC Congo.

·         POOR GOVERNMENTS.

After independence Africa experienced a type of government which was characterized by poor governance, corruption, dictatorship, absence of rule of law example DRC Congo, Libya, Egypt, Somalia and Sudan.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS FACING AFRICAN COUNTRIES AFTER INDEPENDENCE.

·         Poor infrastructures

Infrastructures in Africa such as Road, Railway, and Airport etc. which are remains of transport are not well linked or accessed.

·         Poverty

Many African countries’ economies are poor and dependent.

·         Poor industrial base

Technologically Africans has no strong industrial base still depend from manufactured goods from developed countries hence create poor economy of the countries.

·         Poor agricultural development

Agricultural sector in Africa was still poor depended from low technology and nature which fail to sustain people’s life.

·         Food storage

·         Low value of currencies

·         Many African countries’ currencies e.g. shilling etc their values were low compared to dollars or pounds.

FACTORS (REASONS) THAT HINDERED POLITICAL UNITY IN AFRICA

·         Political instability; politically many Africans countries are not stable due to poor political systems, leaderships etc hence hinder after political unity.

·         Civil wars. There were no peace and harmony to many African countries since government and civilians act one another hence failure of political unity.

·         Tribalism; tribalism in most of Africans countries was still a problem because Africans separated themselves basing on tribal differences.

·         Religious conflict. In some of African countries there were religious conflicts between Muslims against Christians hence hindered political unity example Nigeria Boko haram, in Somalia sasa weed, Somalia. Dictatorship of leaders in government. Since African leaders and government do not exercise democracy, do corrupt, and do not observe rule of law and good governance hence hinder political unity for e.g. Liberia, Zimbabwe, Sudan, and Somalia etc.

·         Poor communication and infrastructure. Many Africans countries had no good link and interaction of communication due to poor infrastructures such food road, railways, ports harbors etc. hence hinder political unity.

·         Different political ideologies. Ideologies of African countries are not the same due to the effect of colonial rule for example some countries in Africa apply capitalist ideology including Kenya while others socialist ideology hence hinder political unity.

·         Different political priorities; African countries after independence to date do not have the same social, political or economic priorities because each country faced different challenges, for example Tanganyika priority were fighting against poverty, ignorance, disease, bring development etc.

·         Since independence nationalistic leaders (heads of states) of post independent African countries such as late JK. Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah, Nandi Azikiwe, Jomo Kenyatta etc tried their best to bring political unity but there were factors which hindered political unity in Africa to date as follows.

·         The effects of colonial legacy and influence of capitalist. Africa countries failed to build political unity because since before and after independence capitalist countries disunited and divided Africans so as to rule them easily; or capitalist countries divided African countries so as to rule them easily during colonial period and after independence.

·         Timing of attainment of independence. African countries attained their independence differently. Most government achieved their independence in 1960’s, 1980’s, as result fail to share one agenda of building political unity.

·         Poverty; Many African countries still experienced poor economy depended from external donors as result fail to unite.

MEASURES/ CHANGES AND PRIORITY OF POST (NEO) INDEPENDENCE AFRICAN STATES.

Post independent African states (countries) inherited (forced) different social, political and economic problems/ challenges from colonial government.

Therefore after independence African countries focused on solving social problems which African had, due to colonial legacy by setup new priorities and changes in their social, political and economic systems which suit Africans. There were the changes;

·         Building national unity: post independence African countries priorities was to build national unity among its people who were divided by colonialists based on ethnicity (tribes) language and religion difference

·         Fight against Tribalism: post independence African countries put also a pressure of eradicating any forms of tribalism which was created by colonialist who favored one tribe and made it superior than the other.

·         Fight against regionalization: Post independent African countries also focused on removing uneven development in the same region in the countries because colonialist left some part of the country more developed and having good social service and infrastructure than the other e.g. in northern was much developed than southern.

·         Changes of political legacy of colonial rule: After independence post independent African states changed brutal military political systems which adopted by colonialist by emphasized (advocated) on Portia monetary democracy.

·         Maintaining Sovereignty and security:  post independent African states after independence they created a new system of sovereignty to avoid disintegration of people and maintain peace and security of the state.

·         Eradication (removal) of poverty: these was most priority of most independent African countries because after independence many African countries were poor as a result all were focused on improving their economies e.g. improving Agriculture, industries etc.

·         To improve peoples’ and national economy: post independent African countries encouraged their people to involve and improve agriculture production so as to improve their economies and national economies, for e.g. in Tanzania agriculture become a backbone of national economy.

Changes in Economic Development policies and strategies

The economic development policies and strategies adopted in Africa after independence.

After independence many African countries were already tired of colonialism because of injustices experienced by Africans under colonial rule especially in the economic sector.

Factor that led to changes in economic development policies and strategies

PROBLEMS HINDERING DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA AFTER INDEPENDENCE. THE AFRICAN CONTINENT HAS FACED A NUMBER OF PROBLEMS SINCE INDEPENDENCE.

·         African countries mainly depended on the export of mineral resources and cash crops for their foreign exchange

·         Most of African countries were economically dependent on the former colonial masters especially in the area of trade with few exceptions such as Republic of Guinea

·         The following were the factors that led to changes in economic development policies and strategies

·         Economically, Africans were exploited during colonialism and the independent governments wanted to address this situation by giving equal job opportunities to their people.

·         Some cash crops were prohibited to grow by the Europeans. For example cash crops like coffee and tobacco. Africans were not allowed to grow some cash crops which were reserved for Europeans only.

·         Colonialism contributed to massive regional disparities, with European areas enjoying the best developments which the African governments also wanted to reduce. Infrastructure was well developed in European areas but not in African regions.

Strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted since independence

Many socialist countries achieved some measures of economic independence in particular Tanzania under Julius K. Nyerere and Ghana under Nkrumah advocates self sufficiency in food production v. Many African people were mobilized to participate in development for example The Ujamaa villages policies were useful in enhancing mobilization.

The economic strategies and policies led to the expansion of industrialization in the continent, as careful economic planning was done with a view to improving the economies

The following are some of the strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted since independence

The African public were trained so that they could take part in development. Some Africans public servants in various fields.

There were improved infrastructures such as roads, railways and ports which were established in many African countries

 Weaknesses of economic strategies adopted in Africa since independence

·         The implementation of agricultural strategies was hampered by the fact that some of the settlement schemes were established in marginal land while other were created away from infrastructure such as roads, railways

·         The bureaucratic administrative machinery was mainly modeled on the institutions of the metropolis tan countries, and it was expensive to run and difficult to staff without the assistance of expatriate staff.

·         Africanization of Public positions was accompanied by corruption. This led to in efficiency as the new public officers were not well acquainted with administrative responsibilities.

·         The civil servants fighter against the interference with their work by politicians. For example, there were many instances where unauthorized use of fund was done for purposes of building political constituencies

Contributions of the economic strategies and policies adopted since independence

The following are some of the contributions of the economic strategies and policies adopted since independence: --

·         New industries were established, the new industries were established and also dams were opened for supplying hydroelectric power.

·         Employment opportunities the foreign investment created more employment opportunities for the people. Especially in capitalist economies such as Kenya and Ivory coast

·         Development in infrastructure was experienced, for example in Tanzania, a new railway line was established that connected the country to Zambia.

·         Fast economic growth was realized in some countries. Agricultural production increased due to the need to produce more cash crops for export, industrial raw materials and food self-sufficiency

·         It was easy for individuals to work hard and accumulate wealth in African countries.

SOCIAL CHANGES

Education after independence

Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence

·         African countries wanted to eradicate racialism in the education sector

·         Colonial education was tailored to create a structure that would perpetuate African dependency upon well- trained non- Africans thus the objectives were to eradicate dependency on the colonial masters on the all spheres of life.

·         To promote self-reliance, social justice, national unity, economic development, equity and scientific literacy

·         To promote African cultural values that the colonial education had neglected

Features of Education in Africa after independence

·         Many Africans emphasize great effort to acquire academic education as during colonialism, Africans were usually provided with vocal training due to the prevailing racial discrimination.

·         Religious organizations and communities continued to sponsor and run the schools even after independence.

·         Local staff as most and post- secondary teaching staff were trained. Therefore, much effort was made to infuse the African values and local patterns of life to the education system.

Objective of Health services after Independence in Africa

·         University education was emphasized, given that there were fewer than one hundred Tanzanians with University degrees by 1960. After independence in 1961 University of Dar es salaam was started with a view to achieving self- sufficiency in line with the policy of socialism. In 1963, the University of Dar es salaam, Makerere University College of Nairobi were merged to form university of East Africa.

·         After independence, African countries had to continue using colonial structure of education since they had to study how to structure their education system due to the shortage of local skilled personnel, Africans government concentrated resources on the expansion of Secondary and higher education. Enrolment in higher education in East Africa increased

·         To expand modern health facilities for Africans citizens

·         To increase living standard of people

·         To reduce and remove the high infant mortality rate and high material death rate during child labour

·         To remove racial discrimination in the provision of health services through promoting health to citizens.

Features of Health Services After independence

•      The 5- years development plan, (1964- 1969) Tanzania’s ambitions to improve health services in rural areas which benefited many people and support for preventive rather than curative aspects of health services
• The government recognized the values of medical auxiliaries after Arusha Declaration. Health services were provided free of charge due to the introduction of socialism until 1980’s other agencies charged a small amount for health services.

·         Through Ujamaa villages, health services were improved a large group of people were able to receive services from one Centre.

·         During 1970’s and the 1980’s Tanzania received a lot of aid towards promotion of health services. After economic crisis, progress in health care was undermined by lack of enough financial allocation. As the result, user charges were introduced in government hospitals.

Strengths of provision of health services in Africa after independence

·         Provision of vaccines has enabled countries to eradicate many epidemic diseases existed in Africa for a long time such as polio and measles

·         Establishment of health practitioners training institutions including medical training centres and universities.

·         Provision of free health services, enable many Africans to get health services they really needed

·         None Africans have now been trained to take charge of health sector in their particular countries medical doctors, nurses and other care givers were trained. This enable individual countries to have their own expert therefore reduced dependency on expatriate personnel

·         Infant morality has reduced dramatically in most African count vi. Alternative medicine has now been adopted in a number of African countries to tackle health

Objectives of provision of water services after independence

·         To provide more equitable distribution of infrastructures in the countries

·         To ensure good health of citizens due to the availability of clean water

·         To improve provision of clean water and reliable to all citizens

·         To provide clean and reliable water supplies to the citizens so as to improve the standard of living

·         To improve sanitation level in the countries

·         Success of provision of water services after independence

Some of the achievements in the provision of water services in Africa after independence are:-

• Infrastructures have been established many countries so as to ensure supply of water to citizens this includes provision of piped water

·         Establishment of boreholes and dams so as to preserve water

·         Private companies has been given licenses to provide clean bottled water so as to avoid it’s citizens to drink unsafe water.

·         Water treatments plans have been established.

Weakness in the provision of health services in after independence

·         Due to failure to research on local traditional medicines has led African governments to spend a lot of resources in buying medicines from other part of the world.

·         Medical services are also undermined by number of incurable diseases such as HIV and AID, Diabetes and Cancer. Heart ailment have increased in Africa and have also contributed to the rising costs of providing health and medical services in the continent.

·         Enough financial resources to provide health services was a problem to most countries

·         Poor planning and lack of resources has affected provision of infrastructure including clean water and transport

·         Lack of enough well-trained personnel as many Africans as man Africans were neglected to be trained during the colonial period. In some African countries a high level of corruption has led to the sale of government funded medicines at a throw away to unscrupulosis business people. This caused great suffering among the population.

·         . International drug manufacturers promoted the Western Approach to medicines due to their self- interests. Africans were encouraged to use powdered milk for infants, although they can not guaranteed access to safe water.

Changes in provision of water services in Africa after independence

Availability of clean water in Africa can not ignored due to it’s importance. In order to improve health care in the world clean water is very important. Good sanitation cannot be available in the absence of clean and reliable water supply

The objectives of the provision of housing services after independence

·         To eradicate racial discrimination, after independence the people of African were supposed to eradicate racial discrimination

·         To promote better planning in urban centres in order to enhance development

·         To provide enough accommodation spaces for the and do away with slums especially in urban centres.

·         The following are some of the objectives of provision of housing services in Africa after independence.

·         To establish modern housing for Africans. The establishment of modern housing was due to the promises made by politicians during the struggle for independence thus helped to promote standards of living.

·         To promote sanitation for the benefit of the citizens. Majority of African citizen were ensured sanitation

·         The pattern of housing distribution after independence

The most of the patterns of housing distribution after independence were;

·         There were increased of population in the urban centres, after independence the population were increased in the cities such as Dar es salaam, Nairobi

·         They used local materials to construct houses in the village ( rural areas)

·         The tall buildings mark the main urban centres such as the cities of skys carpers

·         The best houses have been located in urban centres, urban centres such as Dar es salaam, Harare, Mombasa as well as Nairobi

·         The best houses are owned by European and Asian communities. Although we got the political independence in the 1960’s but most of the African communities occupy the poorly constructed houses,

The steps taken to change the colonial pattern of distribution of housing after independence in Tanzania.

The following are some of the steps taken to change the colonial pattern of distribution of housing after independence

·         The government of Tanzania did not have a systematic policy on how to deal with the challenges of urban growth. The African population in the urban centres growing rapidly rather than at the villages.

·         The government of Tanzania emphasized on the need to make use of low –cost materials for construction purposes so as to provide housing for more people, rather than following international standards blindly

·         The government controlled land allocation in the country. All free hold land reverted to government ownership and previous owner were expected to pay rent to the government

·         The government used the control of building and land strategy so as to alleviate pressure on urban housing and community services. The government established the National Housing corporation ( NHC) whose mission was to provide housing needs through financing as well as other associated services in the country.

Challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence

There are some challenges facing the provision of housing services after independence such as;

·         There was corruption and bias in funds allocation consequently, more tax payer’s money was used to fund establishment of better housing for the middle class in society and less funds were allocated for the housing of the poor

·         Most beneficiaries of the new housing schemes were unable to pay their rents to the NHC there by under mining its efficiency in both Tanzania and Kenya

·         The bias in the implementation of the projects. This leading to the low income earners getting disadvantages at the project implementation stage by giving priority to the middle income earners.

·         Lack of adequate human resources for instances there were few number of qualified town planners in the country who could help to plan and implement the desired programmes in most countries

·         The increase in squatter settlements in most countries like Kenya and Tanzania after independence. This was mainly due to the fast rise in population expansion especially among the youth.

Establishment of national military and legal institutions

Governments have a responsibility to safeguard the national security of their people. During the past this task was done by the colonial powers, through the use of their local forces, where there was need to maintain either internal security or to safeguard their possessions from external security threats. After independence, African governments established their own armed forces and police for the purposes of ensuring security.

The objectives of establishing national armed forces

The following are some of the objectives of establishing national armed forces

·         To participate in nation- building activities

·         To provide assistance during national emergencies

·         To promote internal security as well as integrity

·         To protect the country from external aggression

·         Functions of the national armed forces

The following are some of the function of the national armed forces in African independence. Such as

·         safeguard  of the national security of the country from external aggression

·         participaticipation in nation- building activities such as roads and bridge construction.

·         The national armed forces also take part in peace keeping missions such as the united Nations peace keeping operations in different parts of the world i.e Congo.

·         To assist in the preservation of internal security

·         To assist the public during national emergencies such as floods, famine, fire outbreaks and other national disasters

Strengths of military forces after independence

Some of the strengths of national military forces in Africa after independence are

·         Military forces have safeguarded the national security of African countries from external aggression for example the Tanzania military force took part in the military campaign against the forces military force took part in the military campaign against the forces of Idd Amin of Uganda in 1978

·         The naval forces played a role in detecting and fighting off criminals who use water masses to commit crimes. For example these includes the Somalia pirates done along the India oceans.

·         Military personnel have been enrolled in higher education institution and have improved their image while relating with members of the public

·         The military forces have assisted in the preservation of internal security for example this was witnessed during the attempted coup d’etat in Kenya in 1982.

·         Military forces have taken part in peace keeping missions such as the United Nations peace keeping operations in different parts of the world. Such as Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Lebanon.

National legal institutions

These are institutions that ensures the administration of justice through the courts of law. These institutions ensures that law and order is preserved without denying anyone his or her rights in the society.

Objectives of the national legal institutions

Some of the objectives of the national legal institutions are

·         To assist in the development of the laws

·         To protect the constitution

·         To administer justice in the country

·         To settle disputes among different parties

·         To guarantee rule of law for all citizens

·         To swear in senior members of government such as the Prime Ministers and Presidents

Functions of the national legal institutions

The following are some of the functions of the national legal institutions

·         They protect the national constitutions by ensuring that everything in the country is done within the constitutional provisions in each country.

·         They settle disputes in a state. This is when the conflict arouses in the society they settle all disputes by using constitution.

·         They ensure that all citizens are protected under the law. Those violating the rights and freedoms of others are sentenced accordingly

·         They provide for the administration of estates where owners are deceased

·         The legal institutions help in the administration of justice by interpreting the law. However, they spell out what penalties should be meted out to offenders and amount to be compensated to the offended party.

Strengths of national legal institutions

·         The African legal institution system is flexible and embraces some of the traditional methods of conflict resolution

·         The national legal system benefit from international practices and tradition

·         Many professionals have been trained as legal officers in different countries

·         They based on the equality of all the parties and ensure that there is fairness