HISTORY FORM THREE

                                                                  TOPI 01

                       THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

The scramble for and partition of Africa took place in the second half of the 19th century. The term “scramble” meant a great struggle for colonies on the African continent amongst the European powers. The term “partition” means the dividing up of the African continent amongst the scrambling European powers.

The scramble for and partition of Africa was the outcome of the activities of the missionaries, explorers, traders and the chartered companies in Africa.

REASONS BEHIND THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.

1. The growth of European nationalism especially in Germany and Italy in 1870-1871  This was union of various small European states which were ruled by princes into bigger empires. In Germany the unification was made underCHANCELLAR OTTO VON BISMARK'

        i.          ii.  Balance of power

The balance of power was disrupted by Franco- Prussian war of 1870-1871 [was between France and Germany]. Germany rose to power after defeating France and seizing her provinces like Alsace for production of coal and Lorraine for iron. There after France began to scramble for colonies in order to regain its power and compensate for the lost provinces.

- This unification made their countries to praise their culture and declared a mission to civilize other cultures hence Germany and Italy rushed to scramble for colonies in Africa.

      ii.          IV.  Development of capitalism on Europe from industries to monopoly stage in 1870’s this created the demand of;

·         New markets

·         More raw materials

·         Area to invest their capital

·         Cheap labour

·         Area to dump unemployed white men

    iii.            National prestige

The possession of colonies was considered as a symbol of greatness and respect. For example, Germany and Italy struggled for colonies with the aim of acquiring national prestige.

V.  Strategic importance of some areas in the African continent, such as :-

Egypt

Was scrambled for by British and France because of the use of the Suez Canal as a short cut and getaway to the British colony of India and the Indian Ocean where France monopolized sugar production.

South Africa

Because the British and the Dutch exploit Gold and Diamonds.

The Congo basin

Scramble for by Belgium, France and also Portugal because of minerals like Gold and Copper.

Navigable Rivers, Fertile soil for production of rubber and High population for creation of market labor

Niger Valley

European powers, French, British and German scrambled for because of navigation, agriculture and high population.

Humanitarian reason

Has been given by European nation’s historians that, they scrambled for the African continent in order to civilize African societies.

Vi.  Balance of power; before 1870 there were stable powers for these European nations especially France and Britain but the balance of power destructed or disturbed by the Franco-Purssian war of 1870-71 when Germany defeated France and took Alsaceand Lorraine. So through that Germany became stronger instead of France which immediately began to scramble for colonies in order to regain its power compensate for the lost provinces.

Other reasons

vii.  Berlin conference; this conference stimulated the scramble for because each power exerted a colony proportionally.

Vii.  Role played by missionaries, explores and traders.

ix.  Claims to stop slave trade and spread.

Reasons for some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than others, through this shows that there were different areas which were scrambled for by European powers, the reasons for some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than others are as follows: -

Ø  Navigable water

 Example Suez Canal and Congo Basin are some areas which experienced more intensive       scramble. For example, the Congo Basin was scrambled for by Belgium, Britain, France and     Portugal. And Suez Canal was scrambled for by both the British and the French.

Ø      Large population

These areas which were having large population also experienced more intensive scramble example Congo basin had high population for markets.

Ø  Fertile land

These areas which seemed to have a fertile land like Zimbabwe and some parts of Kenya like the kikuyu highlands experienced more intensive scramble than other areas.

Ø  Minerals

Minerals also made some areas in Africa to experience more intensive scramble than others; For example, South Africa, this region was scrambled by the Dutch(Boers) and the British. The Dutch landed at the cape under the Dutch East India Company in 1962. In 1795 the British conquered the Dutch East India Company at the Cape. After a while the Dutch-Boers migrated Northwards during the Great Boers Trek. Eventually they settled in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. The Orange Free State had diamonds which was discovered in 1867 while Transvaal’s gold was discovered in 1885.

Generally, the Europeans only scrambled for areas with those characteristics mentioned above. And these areas which were scrambled and eventually partitioned by the Europeans, had economic importance to the European powers.

THE IMPACT OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

The partition of East Africa become complete in 1890 after the Anglo German Agreement of 1890. There for, the partition of East Africa brought the following effects.

I. It necessitated the calling of the Berlin conference; this shows that after the scramble for and partition it was calling for the Berlin conference which was led by the Germany counselor Bismarck so as to make sure that they divide the African continent peacefully.

II.  Led to the occurrence of the 1st world war of 1914 because some imperialist nations, the Germany were not satisfied with the number of colonies they had this caused conflicts among the imperialist nations hence occurrence of both the 1 st and 2 nd world war.

III.  Dar-es- Salaam and Mombasa became as importation main parts for both British and Germans. However, Dar-es-Salaam who custom Head house of German.

IV. From 1890 respectively Zanzibar and Uganda become the British protectorates

VI. These treaties culminated in the prelude to Colonialism.

VII.  Led to the exploitation of natural resources in East Africa.

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE [1884-1885]

The Berlin conference was the meeting of European powers which was held in Berlin the capital town of Germany from November 1884 to February 1885 at the invitation of Otto von Bismarck the chancellor of Germany. The conference was attended by the 14 powers, where USA and Denmark attended as observers.

The meeting was called at the time when Europe was at the stage of monopoly capitalism/imperialism.

The objectives (Goals) of the conference were

To solve the Congo and Niger problems.

Need of Bismarck to diverge France’s interest from France to Africa.

To develop Africa for imperialism.

To discuss views from different European nations on how to abolish the slave trade in the African territories.

                           Figure: Berlin conference 1884-85

The resolutions [agreements] of the Berlin conference [the principles reached were]:

1. Freedom of navigation

The conference declared that Congo, the Niger River and other big rivers as free zones for international navigation i.e. Niger River under the authority of Great Britain and Congo River under the authority of Belgium.

2. Principle of effective occupation or control.

European power which claims to any part of Africa would be recognized by the other powers if it was effectively occupied by such European power lie under this clause. The claimants were supposed to develop the areas through their missionaries trading companies’ explorers starting plantations and other economic activities.

3. Principle of notification

Each power which claimed any part of African territory was required to inform the other European power that had signed the treaty in order to avoid crushes among themselves.

4. King Leopold was allowed to rule Congo, but the Congo river was left to be a free zone for all nations. In this case the basin was an international highway.

5. Abolition of slave trade. Each European power which attended the meeting had to abolish the slave trade in African territory and should further extend its sphere of influence from the coastal regions to the internal land and draw political boundaries.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. The Conference opened the interior of African land for colonization.

2. it avoided the possibility of the emperior powers to inter into war during the scramble for Africa.

3. It resolved the international rivalries that ivoted in areas like Congo, Egypt and Nile.

4. It speeded the partition of Africa under the principle of effective occupation.

3. The Conference highligtened the unity and degree of cooperation among European powers.

6. It led to the setting of colonial boundaries in African Continent.

EFFECT OF PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA

1. The conflicts erupted between the religious groups such as the CMS (the church missionary society) the Bangereza or British participants. The white fathers (French Roman Catholics) or Bafaranca and Swahili traders (coastal Arabs and Kiswahili traders) who were being supported by the Kabaka and the traditionalists. The CMS entered in Buganda in 1877.

The white fathers in 1879 both needed to spread Protestantism or Catholicism in Buganda. But they were opposed by the Muslims Arabs who had warned the Kabaka about the dangers of European missionaries, to respond Kabaka executed three believers of the CMS in 1885 including Bishop Hunnington.

2. In 1886 the government of the Kabaka killed about 30 converts at the court after refusing to drop their Christian faith as a result the CMS appealed to the British and white

fathers to the French government to penetrate and protect them hence the scramble for Africa.

3. An attempt to establish a Belgium empire from the coast of East Africa to the Congo basin from 1876 to 1889 by sending expeditions threatened the British and the Germans who were already in East Africa. In 1876 king Leopard formed the international Africa association trade, established Christianity civilization and control trade in the Congo region. Britain and Germany immediately pushed for East Africa to avoid it from falling under the control of king Leopold II of Belgium.

4. The need for raw materials and markets by Germany and Britain made them scramble for colonies in East Africa. Both Germany and Britain were industrialized countries demanding for raw materials, markets, areas for investments and cheap labour of which could be obtained in Africa hence the struggle to scramble for.

5. Trade. Both powers needed to occupy Zanzibar and large parts of the interior for trading interests. Among the commercial companies were such as the Germany with the company and the British East African association of 1887 these companies competed with each other.

6. British rule over Zanzibar began in 1890, while in Uganda and Kenya was in 1894 and was then refered as British East Africa).

7. Germany took Tanganyika including Dar es Salaam and bought the Coastal 10 strips from Zanzibar.

8. Dar-es-Salaam and Mombasa became important main ports and were linked with railway to the interior.

9. Two agreements (Anglo German of 1886 & 1890) eliminated in the prelude to colonialism.

STEPS WHICH WERE TAKEN IN THE PARTITION

The powers signed two agreements or treaties which included;

I. The Anglo - Germany agreement or delimitation treaty of 1886. In this agreement the two powers agreed on the following matters;

A. They defined the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Kismay, Brava, Mogadishu and Warshekh as the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar plus 10mile coastal trip to Witu.

B. The region between the river Tana and river Ruvuma was divided by boundary to the Umba River to Lake Victoria.

C. The Northern half of (modern Kenya) became a British sphere of influence while the southern half becomes the Germany sphere of influence.

D. Germany was given Witu the coastline of Kenya up to Kipini river in Kenya.

Anglo-Germany treaty of 1886.

The rivalry between the two powers continued because the western boundaries were not drawn between Tanganyika and Kenya. The competition for the control of Uganda began due to its fertility, high population and being the source of river Nile. Britain feared that if Germany controlled Uganda her stay there would be in danger.

At the same time Karl Peter’s of Germany trade treaties with Kabaka Mwanga and the chief Nabongo Sekwanga Mumia in western Kenya, therefore the rivalry between them led to another agreement.

The Anglo-Germany agreement or the Helgoland treaty of 1890.

1. Germany continued to control Tanganyika and she acquired ten miles’ coastal strip from the sultan of Zanzibar by buying the area as compensation to the sultan for the possession, then the German controlled ports of Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es salaam, Kilwa and Mikindani and other parts of Tanganyika.

2. Germany recognized Uganda and Kenya as British spheres of influence.

3. Germany lost the Witu which became under British possession in Kenya. In compensation for Witu Germany was given Helgoland an island off the coast of Germany in the North Sea to use it as a military base.

4. The western boundaries between Tanganyika, Uganda and Kenya were defined. Uganda became a British protectorate.

The Anglo-Belgian treaty of 1891 defined the south western Uganda. Therefore, Germany controlled Rwanda and Burundi.

Anglo-Germany treaty of 1890

5. Germany recognized Zanzibar as the British protectorate and the rest of the sultan’s dominions.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM COLONIAL CONTROL AND AFRICAN REACTION

Colonialism is the situation where by one country dominates or rule another country socially, politically, economically and culturally.

Most African countries were colonized by European countries after the Berlin conference except Ethiopia and Liberia. African countries lost their independence, sovereignty and control over their own matters after being colonized.

Therefore, during the imposition of colonial rule it was not easy for colonialists to penetrate into the interior of Africa because;

1. Africans were not ready to be colonized.

2. Africans had their own systems of governance.

3. Africans had their own system of social, political, economic and culture.

4. Africans had a strong leadership and army which strongly protected their state etc.

Therefore, during the establishment of colonial rule colonialists used the following methods/ tactics.

METHODS/TACTICS/ WAYS OF ESTABLISHING/IMPOSING COLONIAL RULE.

There are various ways or methods/tactics employed/ used by colonialist to impose/ establish colonial rule in Africa are as follows;

·         Diplomacy method [signing of treaties]

·         The use of force [military conquest] violence.

·         Alliance or collaboration

·         Administrative technique e.g. Direct rule, indirect rule and Assimilation.

·         Ideological methods e.g. Introduction of Western Education, Western civilization racism and introduction of Christianity.

·         The use of infrastructures and communication Media.

·         Economic technique e.g. Destruction of Industries, this was done by importing ready manufactured goods from abroad e.g. clothes, beards, wine.

The techniques/tactics / methods or ways mentioned above were applied or used in imposing/establishing colonialism because; the colonialist find some difficulties since Africans were not ready to be colonized therefore they applied these tactics as follows;

    ALLIANCE OR COLLABORATION

This was another technique/ way or method of imposing/establishing colonial rule where by colonialists united or cooperated with some societies which had enmity by supporting one side to defeat the other then colonize all together.

     AFRICAN REACTION AGAINST IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE

Despite of colonialists to use different rules/ methods/ tactics or techniques or ways to impose [establish] colonial rule; Still during imposition of colonial rule in Africa, Africans reacted or opposed colonialism because Africans were not ready to be under colonial control that is why Africans imposed different reactions against colonialists.

      THE DIPLOMACY METHOD [THE SIGNING OF TREATIES

This method was the method of signing bogus treaties done by colonialist with African local rulers which cheated Africans to accept colonial control.

African local leaders signed those treaties without understanding their meaning because they did not know how to read and write. After signing the treaties African local leaders would find their areas colonized. For example; Karl Peters signed many treaties with chief Mangungo of Msovero, Kilosa, Usangara and Uluguru. Stanley signed treaties with king Lobengula of Ndebele [Zimbabwe]

The treaties signed by colonialist with African rules were called bogus treaties because

WAYS/ GROUP OF REACTIONS

There were two ways of reaction against imposition of colonial rule and these were;

·         Collaboration [ alliance]

·         Resistance

These two groups of reaction against imposition of colonial rule depended on the following;

THE NATURE OF AFRICAN REACTION AGAINST COLONIAL RULE

Ø  . The nature of population [African societies] for example the size of the population, unity among the people etc.

Ø  . The nature of exploitation and oppression made Africans to use collaboration or resistance

Ø  The military structure and the strength of the society.

Ø  The nature of the colonialists i.e. aggressive or friendly.

Ø  The level of interference in social, political and economic interest made Africans to react or not.

COLLABORATION/ ALLIANCE

Collaboration was a way of reacting against imposition of colonial rule where by African societies cooperated with Europeans invaders. African societies used the method to oppose colonial rule by welcoming or making cooperation with the colonialists against indigenous [fellow] enemies and conducting treaties so as to get support and preserve their interests against their enemies.

Therefore, collaboration simply means, Africans welcomed Europeans in order to get their support. For example, Maasai, Buganda and Lozi collaborated with colonialists as the way to avoid their control.

THE REASONS WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES COLLABORATED WITH COLONIALISTS

·         Poor/weak military power

Some societies had poor military power compared to the colonialists; therefore, they decided to cooperate with them in the opposing manner.

·         Poor leadership

Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate with colonialists because they had poor or weak leaders who were not militant confident to fight against colonial rule.

·         To fight against their fellow Africans.

Some African societies collaborated with colonial rule invaders so as to get assistance to fight their fellow enemies who were strong militarily. For example, Sangu, Bena and Yao collaborated with the Germany against Mkwawa of the Hehe.

·         . To get military/ weapon support.

African societies collaborated with colonialists because they wanted to get strong military weapons to defend their territories i.e. Nambongo Mumia of Wanga and Kabaka Mutesa collaborated with the British to get strong arms.

·         Fear and to promote peace and harmony.

Some societies in Africa decided to cooperate with colonialists due to the desire of maintenance of peace and harmony and avoiding warfare.

·         Ignorance.

Ignorance of some Africans especially rulers [leaders] who did not understand the mission [intention] of colonialists through given gifts, fooled and persuaded them to sign bogus treaties

For example chief Mangungo of Msovero Kisola signed a bogus treaty with Karl peters. King Lobengula of shone and Ndebele signed bogus treaties with John Moffat

vii. Natural problems such as calamities/ disaster. Some societies in Africa suffered a lot with natural calamities such as drought, floods hunger etc. which made them weak politically hence collaborating with the colonialists to get relief or assistance. For example, the Maasai, the Chagga, the Kikuyu etc.

viii. The role of missionaries: - They played a great role to soften the African mind by preaching them to be humble and obedient to their masters, this lowered the African temper against colonial rule.

RESISTANCE

Resistance is the situation where by Africans fought in order to oppose European invasion or colonial rule.

Or is the opposition against colonial rule or control.

FORMS OF RESISTANCE

There are two forms of resistance or reaction against colonial rule employed/ applied by Africans and these are:

Ø  Active resistance

Ø  Passive resistance

ACTIVE RESISTANCE

is the form of resistance where by Africans took arms to fight against colonial rule, or active resistance is the one which Africans wage war to oppose colonial rule by destructing European properties like farms, killing Europeans and so on. Eg of African societies which applied active resistance against colonial systems were: Nyamwezi, under Isike, Hehe under Mkwawa and Yao under Machemba.

WHY SOME SOCIETIES OF AFRICA SUCCEEDED/WERE ABLE TO APPLY ACTIVE RESISTANCE?

Ø  Strong unity among the people.

Ø  Good war techniques.

Ø  Presence of strong/ good leadership e.g. Samori Toure and Mkwawa.

Ø  Strong army.

Ø  Strong organizations/political systems.

Ø  Powerful socially and economically.

PASSIVE RESISTANCE

Is the form of resistance where by Africans did not take arms in opposing colonial rule or cooperating with colonialists.

Or

Passive resistance is unarmed or nonviolence opposition against colonial control by refusing to pay taxes, production of cash crops, denied to work etc. an example of a society which applied passive resistance was Pogoro who refused to involve in colonial activities like cotton picking in southern Tanganyika.

WHY SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES APPLIED PASSIVE RESISTANCE NOT ACTIVE RESISTANCE?

Ø  Poor unity among the people.

Ø  Presence of natural calamities for example floods, droughts.

Ø  Poor weapons

Ø  Absence of strong army; presence of weak army made some African societies to afraid to fight.

Ø  Weak leadership.

Ø  Weak social and political organizations.

REASONS WHY AFRICAN SOCIETIES FOUGHT AGAINST IMPOSITION OF COLONIAL RULE

Almost many African societies resisted against imposition of colonial rule due to the following reasons:

Ø  To defend social and political sovereignty;

Many societies in Africa decided to resist colonial rule because colonialist wanted to interfere their social and political power. So African chiefs or leaders such as Mkwawa, Samora Toure and Kaberege etc took army to fight against it.

Ø  Interference of trade

Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule because colonialists interfered with African trade monopolies which made Africans harsh towards colonialists hence resistance.

Ø  Interference of cultures

African resisted against imposition of colonial rule since colonialists wanted to interfere African culture such as religion, language etc.

Ø  Land alienation.

Africans resisted against imposition of colonial rule because colonialists took African’s land as a result Africans took arms to fight against this.

Ø  Forced labour

Many African societies imposed to resist once against colonial rule since colonialists forced them to work by force without payment in colonial activities like farms, construction of BOMAS etc. Examples of resistances were Majimaji, Nandi resistance, Chimulenga etc.

Ø  Introduction of taxation

Colonialists introduced different heavy taxes such as head tax, cattle tax, hut taxand matiti tax where Africans were forced to pay them as a result they resisted against the imposition of colonial rule.

Ø  Harsh rule

Ø  Africans were not ready to be colonized.

Ø  Africans resisted against the imposition of colonial rule because they were not ready to be colonized since they had their own system of governance and administration.

Ø  Beliefs of political and military strengths.

African societies were believed that they were powerful and strong in political and military as a result when colonialist came they opposed against them for example chief Machemba of Yao disobeyed Germany governor WISSMAN because he believed in his military power.

Ø  Colonial social segregation and discrimination.

Africans resisted against colonialist because Africans were segregated, oppressed and discriminated by them and treated as inferior in social, political and economic issues as a result Africans resisted them harshly

Ø  Alliance / collaboration between traditional enemies with the colonialists.

TYPES OF RESISTANCE

There are two main types of resistance namely:

Ø  Small scale resistance [ primary resistance]

Ø  Large scale resistance [secondary resistance]

SMALL SCALE RESISTANCE

Small scale resistance is the type of resistance which fought for a short period of time over a small area or small group of people.

Small scale resistance normally covered a small area fought on the basis of tribal lines occurred during penetration of colonialists i.e. the Nandi, Hehe, Nyamwezi etc.

Small scale resistance was influenced by local rulers [leaders] who organized their small groups of people to take army against European invaders to defend their territories.

EXAMPLES OF SMALL SCALE RESISTANCE WHICH WILL BE DISCUSSED ARE

Ø  The Bunyoro Resistance [1893]

Ø  The Masai [Kenya Resistance 1895]

Ø  The Hehe Resistance [1891-1898]

Ø  The Nyamwezi Resistance [1891-1894]

Ø  The Yao Resistance [1888]

Ø  The Nandi Resistance

Ø  The Hehe Resistance [1891-1898]

HEHE resistance was a small scale resistance which occurred in 1891-1898 fought against Germany under the leadership of MKWAWA.

Or

HEHE resistance was a small scale resistance fought between the HEHE tribe against Germany in 1891-1898 under the leadership of MKWAWA. HEHE resistance was among of the strong and powerful resistance imposed towards Germany colonial power since it fought for many years and brought a lot of damages, sufferings and disturbances to Germany because HEHE tribe under the leadership of MKWAWA had good war techniques inherited from the Ngoni tribe such as cow horns, short stubbing spears and long hide.

Therefore, through good war techniques HEHE under MKWAWA formed a strongest kingdom and resisted against Germany rule than the rest resistance in East Africa.

CAUSES OR REASONS OF HEHE RESISTANCE

Ø   Germany harsh rule; Germany ruled Hehe very harsh not respectful to the Hehe, they forced them to pay tax, to work and took their land as a result the Hehe fought against the Germany

Ø  Interference of Mkwawa’s leadership, Germany wanted to control Mkwawa and forced him to accept Germany control due to that Mkwawa disagreed to accept Germany rule.

Ø  Interference of culture; Germany interfered Hehe culture such as polygamy belief in many systems etc. which made the Hehe under the Mkwawa harsh hence fight against Germany.

Ø  To protect political and economic interests.

Ø  Killing of the Mkwawa’s delegates. Germany killed Mkwawa’s delegates who were sent to compromise as a result Mkwawa revenged by killing Germany commander known as EMIL VON ZELEWSKY and 300 African soldiers as a result war started. The name Mkwawa means conqueror of lands.

Ø  Germany’s occupation / control several areas in Tanganyika. Hehe under Mkwawa fought against the Germans because they wanted to control Ugogo, Uluguru, Usagaraand Mpwapwa which had 410 economic importance to the HEHE.

Ø  Blocking trade routes; Hehe resistance against Germany occurred following Mkwawa blocking all Germany caravan routes passed his area which disrupted the Germany trade hence conflicts started.

Ø  Due to the above reasons or causes of the Hehe resistance the war/fighting broke out which took a long period of time. The Germany attacked Mkwawa in 1891 following the killing of the Germany commander Emil von Zelewsky at Lugalo.

In 1894 Germany attacked Mkwawa’s capital known as Kalenga but Mkwawa succeeded to run away [escape] and started to fight the GORRILAS WARFARE until 1898.

In the same year 1898 Mkwawa while he was hiding himself he became sick. The Germans approached where he was hiding Mkwawa did not accept the shame of surrender to Germany while he was alive he shot himself in July 1898 and died.

THE NANDI RESISTANCE [1896-1905]

Nandi resistance was a small scale resistance fought between the Nandi tribe in Kenya against British in 1896-1905 following the British occupation or control over the Nandi’s land.

Or

Nandi resistance was a small scale resistance occurred in 1896-1905 when Nandi tribe in Kenya resisted against the British control over their land organized by a leader known as KOITALEL and ORKOLYOT.

The Nandi resistance occurred since the British invaded and occupied [control] the Nandi land by constructing [build] telegraphic lines and railways along the Nandi rift valley land which were fertile for crop production and livestock keeping. The Nandi were not happy for the construction of that railway lines and termed or called ”Iron snake”.

Therefore, they started the resistance by attacking the British military position, uprooting and cutting wires, attacking the British caravan trade, raiding the railway deposits etc.

The Nandi did that because they believed that they had the superior weapons and military to fight British as they conquered the neighboring territories.

THE REASONS OR CAUSES OF THE NANDI RESISTANCE.

Ø  The pressure from Kimnyoles prophecy; the Nandi decided to fight against the British because of the prophecy of the Kimnyole who foreseen the coming of foreigners on their land which made the Nandi to fight against the British after they arrived on their land.

Ø  Introduction of the railway lines along the Nandi land. Nandi resisted against British because British constructed a railway line on the Nandi land which they defined on it for farming and livestock keeping.

Ø  Land problems or alienation. British took Nandi’s best and fertile land and gave it to the white’s settlements as a result the Nandi fought against them.

Ø  The Nandi’s pride. The Nandi fought against the British because they believed that they were superior, strong and powerful socially, economically, politically, militarily and culturally hence did not want to be controlled.

Ø  The killing of the Nandi leader KOITALEL; Nandi’s resisted against the British following the killing of their leader known as Koitalel when he was called in the meeting of stopping the resistance.

THE EFFECT OR IMPACT OF NANDI RESISTANCE

Ø  Nandi resistance led to the introduction of cheap labour, since those Nandi people had decided to be employed as cheap labours to the British settle farms.

Ø  Over grazing of some area. Nandi resistance led to the environmental degradation since the area which the Nandi pushed or migrated were not enough for cattle grazing.

Ø  The death of people. Nandi resistance led to the massive loss of people’s lives including leaders such as Koitalel, Orkolyot and other warriors.

Ø  British colonizing the Nandi land. The British defeated the Nandi during resistance as a result they took the Nandi land and made the Nandi to lost their sovereignty.

Ø  Destruction or damage of properties. The Nandi resistance led to the destroying of people’s properties including land, railways, telegraphic lines, killing of livestock, houses etc.

Ø  Hunger and famine. Nandi resistance led to the occurrence of hunger [food shortage] since resistance took many years and farms and cattle were killed during the fighting.

Ø  Migration of people. The Nandi resistance led to the restless of people because during and after the resistance people run away or migrated to other areas.

Ø  Land alienation. Nandi resistance led to many Nandi people to remain landless since after the resistance British took Nandi’s fertile land.

  THE NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE 1891-1894

Nyamwezi resistance was a small scale resistance against the Germany rule organized by Nyamwezi under their leader known as chief Isike in 1891-1894. The Nyamwezi resistance occurred as a result of German’s monopolization over Nyamwezi’s trade and passed through their land such as Ujiji and Mwanza which broke their first good trade relation.

The Nyamwezi started resistance under their leader chief Isike in 1891 in order to avoid the Germany control; but due to poor weapons the German attacked Isike’s fort and destroyed it. Chief Isike decided to blow up [kill himself] together with his family in the gun powder magazine rather than being captured by Germany.

The influence from Isike leadership. Isike was regarded as strong and powerful leader so he organized his people to fight against German rule.

The land conflicts. Germany wanted to control the Nyamwezi’s land as they did in other areas in Tanganyika as a result Nyamwezi resisted against the German control.

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF NYAMWEZI RESISTANCE

·          Poor fighting techniques.

·         Poor war organizations etc.

·         Absence of strong army.

·          Poor weapons.

·         Disunity among the people.

·          

THE YAO RESISTANCE [1890-1899]

YAO resistance was small scale resistance which fought between the YAO against the Germans in 1890-1899 under the leadership of Chief MWENE MACHEMBA.

The Yao resistance was an active resistance since Machemba organized his people actively and was able to defeat three Germany companies sent to him. After machemba to defeat Germany companies; the German Governor forced Machemba to leave his place but he refused as a result German took up army against machemba and attacked Machemba’s fort in 1899. Machemba managed to escape into Mozambique and left his fellow imprisoned as a result the Yao resistance failed hence Germany took control over the Yao‘s southern region of Tanganyika.

THE CAUSES OF THE YAO RESISTANCE

Ø   Interference of Yao’s territory. The Germany wanted to control the Yao’s territory which made Yao under Machemba to fight activity against it.

Ø   The conflict between Machemba and the Germany. Machemba defeated three German companies as a result German took up army to fight.

Ø  Machemba’s rejection to surrender. The Germany forced Machemba to surrender by leaving his place to the coast as a result Germany waged for the war.

Ø  Introduction of taxes.

Ø  Forced labour. The German forced Yao to work without or with low payment as a result people took up arms against Germany.

Ø  ABUSHIRI AND BWANA HERI RESISTANCE 1888-1889

Ø  Abushiri and Bwana Heri resistance was a small scale resistance which occurred along the coastal region of Tanganyika where by rich Arabs and local traders organized to fight against the British and the German interference on their trade in 1888-1889.

LARGE SCALE RESISTANCE IN AFRICA.

01.  MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE 1905-1907

It is not possible to recognize any simple pattern in African resistance to European rule. Samori fought a long defensive battle against the -French. Lobengula saw the futility of military resistance. People such as Nandi reacted immediately in violent manner to the British advance. Other groups, having failed to put up much of a resistance at first; were persuaded to rebel against the European later. Often a rekindling of traditional religious belief was combined with armed rebellion. An example of such a revolt was the Maji-Maji Rising of 1905-1907 in Tanzania.

The Majimaji resistance broke out in the southern Tanganyika against the German control. This is a large and popular African uprising in Africa. The term "Majimaji" is derived from Swahili word "Maji" which -means water. Majimaji was magic water drawn from river Rufiji and mixed up with maize and millet flour after mixing up the water was thrown on the various fighters so as to protect them from German bullets in war, The leader of the Maji maji uprising was known as Kinjekitile Ngware, who lived at Ngarambe in Southern Tanganyika. He organized his followers 'and began to fight in July 1905, the Matumbi of Nandete in Rufiji were the first to take up arms.

Majimaji uprising was highly mobilized and its followers possessed courage as well as determination against the German rule in Tanganyika. It took a wide coverage' and speeded very fast from Matumbi of Nandele in Rufiji to other areas like Uluguru, Masasi, the Makonde plateau, Songea, the Kilombero Valley, North Dar es Salaam and the Mahenge plateau. In these areas African communities such as Zaramo, Ngoni, Bena, Mwera, Ngindo; Pogoro, Mbunga, Ndendeule and Luguru united together to fight against German rule.

Causes of Majimaji Resistance

(i) The forced cotton growing that was ordered by the German government in 1902. The Akidas were ordered by the governor to establish cotton plots where African communities of southern Tanzania had to work with little pay or provide a free labour, they also worked under inhuman. This situation dissatisfied the people and decided to take up arms against Germans.

(ii) Forced labour was another African grievance. Africans were forced to work on railway construction as well. as settler farms.: Africans were humiliated by the Germans and friends while working. Generally, the colonial treatment towards Africans was inhuman.

(iii) The imposition of heavy taxes and fines on Africans by he Germans. 'the taxes were unfair and had to be paid in the form of money. For example, the tax imposed for hut was to be paid in form of money for about three rupees. But Africans did not have money; the only way of getting money was through selling labour power to the Germans to earn money to pay different taxes imposed. The collection of tax aimed at raising the revenue for the colonial administration but this system was new to the Africans. They were also discontented because the colonialist used their land for production while at the same time forced them to pay taxes.

(iv)The Germans disregarded African traditional beliefs .and practices, such as dances and circumcision. They overlooked the African religious leaders and condemned sacred places as the areas of African witchcraft. The disruption of traditional practices disappointed the Africans thus decided to stage resistance against Germans.

(v) The hostile and harsh treatment of the people by the German appointees, such as the Akidas. Akidas and their local police treated African people brutally. Their ruthless ruling system also discredited Africans hence lived like slaves.

(vi) African people wanted to regain their lost independence. Most of the young men felt that they had lost their manhood. by submitting to the Germans. The German occupation at the initial stage involved different ways which resulted into disunity among the Africans. Later Africans realized the need to unite together so as to-fight against common enemy, that is, German foreigners.

(vii) Africans wanted to oppose adultery, rapping and fornication exercised by German mercenaries and their house boys. These practices were crimes to African communities and the offenders had to be punished. This was predominant among the Ngindo communities. But the Germans and their house boys exercised all the practices that were regarded as crimes and disregarded the Ngindo taboo. The local communities, especially the Ngindo, were discontented with these events hence took up arms against Germans.

(viii) The Ngoni people wanted to revenge for the killings of 1898. During the initial stage of imposing German rule, a large -number of Ngoni people were murdered and their properties destroyed or taken by German forces. This event created bitterness, hence resulting into taking up of arms by Ngoni’s against Germans.

(xi) The influence of Kinjekitile, who was an. effective leader with ability of organizing people, instilled confidence in the African people by requesting them to unite and take up arms against the German invaders. The Kinjekitile's force believed that they would be immune to German bullets as the water sprinkled on them would turn the bullets into water. The Majimaji resistance ended in. 1907 and African forces were defeated by the Germans. Many fighters were killed and those who survived lost the hope as the 'magic' water had failed to protect them from German bullets. Most of the fighters escaped to Mozambique, many were hanged while others surrendered to the Germans.

Causes for African Defeat

(i) Africans employed poor weapons such as arrows, spears and outdated guns

against their enemies who used superior automatic machines like machine guns. They also lacked fighting skills and were poorly organized as opposed to their counterpart, the Germans, who were well trained and organized.

(ii) The Germans were supported in many ways, such as weapons and mercenary soldiers from Sudan, Germany, New Guinea, and Somalia. All these reinforced the Germans and led to emergence of large army, which could attack Africans strongly and effectively.

(iii) The Africans lacked military communication infrastructures. They failed to communicate between one ethnic group and another. Every ethnic group fought in isolation in different areas and their leaders had different motives and grievances.

(iv) Failure of magic water 'Majimaji' to turn German bullets into water and protect the African fighters. A large number of the warriors were killed during the war hence others lost faith over their religion.

(v) The Majimaji uprising covered a small area, hence failing to cooperate a number of African powerful communities, like the Nyamwezi and Hehe in the interior. These powerful communities could bring support to African forces.

(vi) The effect of scorched-earth policy employed by Germans. This policy involved destruction of African residences and destroying crops and property/ thus famine caused deaths among –the African fighters since many of them were starving.

Impacts of Majimaji Resistance

(i) The Majimaji resistance made Germans ruler to reform their administration so as to avoid, another uprising in Tanganyika. These reforms were made under Governor Lord Rothenberg. They also changed their attitudes towards Africans. Governor Rothenberg introduced some important measures to improve Africa services, like education and health, farming and communication system. He also rejected extra taxation of Africans and abolished corporal punishment, The Governor recognized traditional chiefs, stopped forced labour and began to punish German settlers who mistreated the African workers.

(ii) It brought together many African communities such as Ngindo,Zaramo, Ngoni and Matumbi to resist against the European invaders

(iii) It led to the destruction of properties

since the Germans used the scorched-earth policy which involved burning of villages and crops in all areas with African forces.

(iv) A large number of Africans lost their lives. It is estimated that between 75, 000 and 120, 000 Africans, including their leaders and soldiers, were killed by the German forces while other people died of diseases and starvation. A large part of the southern Tanganyika became depopulated

(v) The Majimaji resistance led to the emergence of severe famine since the German soldiers destroyed farms and granaries during the war. This period of famine was known as funga period among the people of south eastern Tanganyika.

(vi) The majimaji resistance led to the displacement of many African families during the war. Due to fear and insecurity, many people escaped to different directions to look for other areas of settlement where they thought to be peaceful. The war also influenced family separation among the African communities.

(vii) The war laid the foundation for nationalism in Tanganyika, because after the uprising Africans learnt a lot and adopted a new method of resistance against colonial in Tanganyika and disregarded their ethnic differences.

REACTION TO FRENCH INVASION IN WEST AFRICA

(a) Reaction to French Invasion Senegambia

French military conquests in West Africa, were first directed against Senegambia during the rule of Mohmadou Lamine, and against Guinea then under Samori Toure. The major aim of the French was to capture the trading centers of Western Sudan and the strategic area between Upper Senegal and Niger. They had already built warehouses and fortresses along these rivers to control trade in palm oil, groundnuts, and gold from the interior. However, the power base of African ruling classes lay in the control of this trade. This was one of the factors of the conflict between the French imperialists forces and the African rulers.

The French employed a number of techniques to conquer the territory One of this was to- utilize existing local differences, or to initiate new conflicts between African ruling groups. To be able to conquer Senegambia, the French formed alliances with the empires of Tukulor under Sheikh Ahmaddu, Bandu Empire under Umar Penda and Khasso under Luku Sambala. In so doing the French managed to' conquer and subjugate the weaker states.

(b) Reaction to French Invasion of Guinea

Samori Toure of Guinea illustrates for many people the courage and determination of African resistance to European conquest. Samori Toure was successful for sixteen years in preventing his own state from being colonized by the French. Although he was ultimately defeated, the duration of his resistance was in itself a victory, which can only be understood by looking back to the earlier period of his life.

Samori Toure was born into a Malinke family, the first child of a -farmer who had strongly family connections with the Dyula, the trading community of the Malinke people. The Dyula lived in the great commercial centers on the northern edge of the West African forest belt separating the inland regions from the Gulf of Guinea. They were also very famous in the commercial centers along the trans-Sahara trade routes such as Timbuktu, Taghaza and Walata. Commodities such as cloth, iron tools and salt were carried by the Dyula merchants and exchanged with forest products such as palm oil, kola nuts, and ivory. Fire arms also occupied a very important position in-this trade

At the age of eighteen he asked to be released from his duties on the farm and be allowed to join the Dyula. For about five years he built, up strong, business and made many contacts throughout the Western Sudan. This life was interrupted in 1852 when his mother 'was made captive by' Soni 'Birama, the King of Bisandugu.Samori offered his services as a soldier to Soni Birama in return for his mother's freedom.

Samori's power and leadership attracted many followers and within a few years he found that he was strong enough to be independent of Soni Birama, He set out to control the whole of Malinke land and thus to maintain peace, law and order. He was joined by many minor leaders and supported, by his family.

By 1879 his territory had stretched from Sierra Leone 'to the Ivory Coast in the West from Bamako in the north to the Liberian borders in the south. His authority was based more on his military power than on his religious leadership. His arm was composed of young captive r, soldiers trained mostly as foot soldiers-the infantry. His army could have at total of ten or twelve thousand fully equipped soldiers.

Samori determined to defend commercial centers and the trade routes, always sought to acquire and maintain regular supplies of firearms, ammunitions and horses for his army. He was helped by the Dyula merchants in this endeavour. The merchants obtained the firearms through trade with European merchants. Samori further maintained a group of skillful craftsmen who repaired and even made guns.

In 1882, French forces of occupation started advancing towards Bamako. They demanded that Samori should keep away from the large Bambara and Mandingo markets. Samori rejected the demand and managed to keep the French off up to 1890. From 1891 to 1898 Samori conducted guerrilla warfare. He organized an excellent system of military intelligence to spy on enemy troop movements.

Why Samori Toure Fought Against the French (1891-1898)

(i) The French activities of selling arms to Samori's enemies, such as Tieba of Sikasso alarmed Samori Toure. The French' aimed at weakening the Mandika so as to acquire it smoothly.

(ii) Samori Toure was shocked by the failure of his plan of playing off the British against the French. He had signed an agreement with the British on non-interference in each other's sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the British refused to support Samori against the French.

(iii) Samori Toure wanted to protect the independence of his empire. The use of force by the French in acquiring colonies could not be tolerated by Samori Toure

(iv)The French wanted to conquer Mandika when Samori's empire had reached at its peak with military supremacy and economic prosperity. The French therefore threatened Samori's territorial expansion into areas which they claimed belonged to them.

(v)Samori wanted to safeguard trade. He was determined to, defend commercial centres and the trade routes and maintain regular supplies of firearms.

Reasons as to why Samori Toure Managed to Contain (Fight) the French Forces for so long?

(i) Strong army. Samori Toure had established strong army of approximately 12,000 men and about 90,000 reserves. He had a standby army, trained military men who could be taken in emergence, cases to help the permanent army.

(ii) Modern weapons. Samori Toure had 'excess to modern arms that he had acquired from the coastal traders' that he had been friend with them. Samori Toure had established friendship with the coastal traders for quite some time. lie also had military workshops which supplied him with weapons and repaired his defected weapons.

(iii) Samori Toure had a lot of wealth from trade in slaves, gold and colanuts, which was utilized in rewarding his workers and soldiers for their services.

(iv) Some of the Samori soldiers had served in the French-army where they had acquired modern military techniques and so were able to respond effectively to the invaders. These soldiers passed those skills to the rest of the Army.

(v) He was determined to maintain and preserve his independence in the eyes of Europeans advance. This motivated him to resist for a long time.

(vi) Samori Toure established state control of agriculture -and markets to ensured regular food supply for the army. Availability of food to the soldiers encouraged them to fight for long time.

(vii) The use of guerrilla or commando tactics of surprise ambushes and right raids. This' helped Samori Toure occasionally to win the war. 'The French soldiers found the Mandika people too difficult to control

(viii) He used scorched earth military technique such as burning villages and destroying crops in order to make the French starve when they reached the area.

(ix) Samori Toure got support from the Mandika people in national war of defense. This support helped Samori Toure to resist for a long time.

Why Samori Toure was Finally Defeated?

(i) Anglo-French conspiracy. Between 1889 and 1890 Samori had reached an agreement with the British to supply arms to Samori's armies up to 1896. But in 1896 the British breached the treaty by occupying Sierra Leone thus blocking Samori's access to arms supplies. In the same year British forces occupied the Gold Coast making it impossible for Samori to form a military alliance with Ashanti.

(ii) Shortage of military weapons. Surrounded by enemies, Samori doubled efforts to manufacture arms within his empire. However, these were not sufficient for the' ever-increasing war demands. In 1889 the French managed to defeat Samori's forces. Samori was captured and exiled to Gabon where he died two years later.

(iii) Disunity among rulers. The resisters were unable to unite together as their enemy was common. Samori sought alliance with AImed Seku of Tukola and Tieba of Sikasso with no success. In fact, these rulers even assisted the French in defeating Samori.

(iv) A disciplined and well organized army helped to defeat Africans. The colonial armies were better trained and more experienced in strategy and tactics. Hence the armies led by Samori Toure did not stand a chance. Thus the Africans were taught a lesson, that those "modern" societies with institutionalized war and professionalism in modern fighting techniques

could never be defeated by warfare.

(v) The Europeans wanted to preserve their new acquired economic positions and that made them fight at all costs, ruthlessly and untiringly.

(vi)Instability and public misery were also a major factor in defeat. The wars of resistance of Samori Toure were fought with bitterness which culminated into greater devastation. Villages were set on fire, farmlands destroyed animals looted. This ended up with loss of property, year and famine and stirred up local resistances.

Lack of support from communities. The non- Mandika communities and non- Muslims in the empire did not give him full support because they had been mistreated during his leadership. Some decided to support the French forces against him.

ZIMBABWE

The Mashona - Matebele (Chimurenga) Uprising in Zimbabwe (1896-1897)

The whites created their settlement in Mashonaland in 1890.They thought that the Shona might thank the whites and were grateful to them since they could protect them against their traditional rivals, the Ndebele. But the matter was not so. The whites had misconceptions about the Ndebele, for they thought that with the fall of Lobengula, the son of Mzilikazi, the Ndebele power was completely dwarfed and could not stage war. As a result, in 1896, the whites were caught by surprise, for there was a more or less joint uprising between the Shona and Ndebele. In April 1896, the Matebele started a war that spread like summer fire to the Mashona tribe. In June of the same year, the war broke out in Mashonaland. The war was motivated by outstanding political, social, and economic dissatisfactions against the white men.

The Causes of the Uprising

Land expropriation: The B.S.A.C. and the whites confiscated and gave the white settlers the better and more fertile land of the Mashona without consulting the local chiefs, for formerly land was considered the property of the community and it was the chiefs' duty to distribute lands. On the other hand, the Ndebele were pushed into the reserves of the Shangani and Gwani, which had water shortages and were infested with tsetse flies respectively. Worse still, the Ndebele's population was too high to inhabit this barren land. The situation was as the nduna Gambo said One cause of dissatisfaction and unrest is that after we have lived many years in a spot, we are told that the white man has purchased it and we have to go" to reserve. That incited the people to

resist.

Forced labour: The prevalent policy of the whites was to compel Africans in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland to supply labour. The commissioner in each district was given power to compel chiefs to offer labourers in mineral and farm circles. All able-bodied men had to work regardless of their former status in the society. This was done against their will. Labourers were recruited by armed forces or by police who went around into villages to seize people by force.

Harsh treatment: The 1893 Mashonaland and Matebeleland situation was as Sir Martin Richard I, the resident commissioner, said: "The system was no better than slavery." The employers and native

commissioners used the Sjambok, a kind of whip, to mistreat the local people. The elderly people were flogged and killed in public, and the conditions in the mines were deplorable.

Taxation policies: In 1894, the Hut Tax was introduced. Some of the Shona chiefs and their subjects refused new laws introduced by the colonial administration as well as the British technique of collecting taxes. There were also cases of officials' grabbing cattle, goats, and grains from the people who could not manage to pay taxes. Tax defaulters were crucified and at times jailed without trial or inflicted to manual labour; thus, the nature of taxation policies, plus other discontents, prompted the Chimurenga uprising.

Low wages: Because the Africans were subjected to forced labour in mines and on white farms, while they were lowly paid as return for their toil under atrocious conditions, including the nature of the work and long working hours. Interference in the Shona trade: The desire of the B.S.A. company to monopolise trade in Mashonaland contributed to the uprising. The Shona had for a considerable length of time developed a trade relationship with the Portuguese for which they sold gold-dust, ivory for guns, and other cheap manufactured products. The British, however, intended to possess that commercial activity by force in which they wanted the Shona sell and buy from South Africa. Worst still, the company wanted to control gold mining and not in buying gold from Africans. Since the Shona failed to man the situation, war was the only option. The Ndebele were also disturbed by the whites' confiscation of their trade links, however local and insignificant they were.

The abolition of induna age regiments among the Matebele: The Matebele were made to suffer socially and psychologically. Military towns were outlawed and the Ndunas were deprived their power, importance and position. Above all, it was embarrassing for the British to nominate the Shona policemen to enforce law and order in Ndebele areas. Such social grievance, coupled with other factors, helped to excite the Ndebele community into the uprising.

Favoritism: The colonial government elevated injustices in both the Shona and Ndebele societies. There was very little justice bestowed on the African people. Most often, the colonial government gave positions of responsibility to people who were untrained, unsuited, and unaccepted by the people. The administration even enacted laws that protected the white population against the Africans. For instance" the whites had fair punishments in comparison to those of the blacks. The

traditional chiefs, who had yielded great powers, were saddened when reduced to the lot of commoners. The foreign police were given the responsibility to ensure observance of law and order and maltreated the Africans,

Loss of cattle: Cattle were the backbone of people's livelihood. It is believed that Lobengula possessed 250,000 cattle before his death. The Ndebele were only permitted to keep 40,930 out of the total number, and t many of them were offered to the volunteers or to the B.S.A.C. The others were dispatched to South Africa. Worse still, there was a render pest outbreak in 1895 killed nearly two million cattle. On a sadder note, it was portrayed that some animals were shot dead on the

command of the white man. Due to this grievance and others, war was unavoidable,

Renderpest calamities in association with the white man's presence: The Render pest epidemics and swarm of locusts that invaded had dismantled food crops. Traditional religious leaders said that the

Render pest occurred due to the presence of the white men. The word spread that the ancestral spirits were angered with the presence and activities of the white men. In this process, the local population was provoked and finally they joined the war of resistance.

Missionaries disregarded the traditions and customs of the Shona - Ndebele people: It has been argued "the missionaries failed to understand the attachment the Shona had for their traditional religion and their own form of government". In Matebe1eland, the missionaries wanted the Ndebele to alter their culture, ignoring especially their religion based on the Mwari cult. That was the reason probably why the mission stations were attacked during the uprising.

Desire for their lost independence: It encouraged hostility on the part of the Ndebele to dismantle their monarchy. The Ndebele people resisted in the hope of repossess their lost independence. None of the Nduna was appointed in any responsibility of administration, and as regards the Mashonaland, the white men had dominated even the chiefs' power to chastise the wrongdoers. Their own discipline was extremely brutal. The uprising therefore wanted to re attain the pre- colonial administration.

Jameson's raid: For long time, dissatisfactions among the Shona - Ndebele people were piling up accumulating, but hardly ignited the war. The immediate cause of the uprising was the Jameson's raid. In December 1895 Dr. L.S. Jameson commanded a party of policemen to capture and defeat Transvaal for Cecil Rhodes. The Boers however, decisively overpowered him. To avoid the shame, Jameson was returned to Britain. This was clear sign to the Ndebele that even the British were weak and could be subdued like other African tribes. Hence, the Shona and Ndebele adjudged to attack British. After seeing that they were not unbeatable. The uprising ended in 1897, but with a

number of repercussions. The Africans who were fighting to repossess their independence achieved little success. Nevertheless, the Ndunas' importance was considered after the 1893 war and they were appointed as officials in colonial administrative structures and were to given remunerations.

The Course of the War The Mlimo cult and the medium spirit leaders mobilized the people in the uprising. The Matebele mobilized the Mkwati and Siginyamotsha, who had been most active. The Mashonaland, Banda, and Ishiwa grouped the Shona into military regiments .

The Ndebele chief priests, Ungulu, and Lobengula's son, Nyamanda, enspirited the Ndebele uprising. Women, children, men, young and old fight and get rid off the white men from their land. The African warriors organised the war and took the whites by surprise and it costed the whites' lives. By 1897, the whites with the new coordination and tactics and defeated the Ndebele and finally the Shona.

Consequences of the Chimurenga Uprising The Chimurenga warriors were taught bitter lesson and many of them died during the confrontation.

The BSAC administration incorporated and expropriated more fertile land and cattle as war indemnity.

The company administration received much criticizism from the colonial office for mistreatments of the natives. Then Cecil Rhodes guaranteed to make changes in governing the Matebeleland.

The Ndebele were redistributed new lands in the lowlands where they lived happily unperturbed by the company and European mistreatment.

The Ndebele indunas were considered and employed in various administrative positions under the BSAC administration.

Most of the educated Ndebele were given responsibilities as administrators in Mashonaland.

Mashonaland and Matebeleland were allocated to Most European settlers created their settlement in the fertile land that formerly belonged to Shona and Ndebele.

Many Africans adopted Christianity due to the inability of Mwari cult and the Chanimuka (medium spirit) to defeat the Whiteman.

Because of the failure in war the Mwari cult leaders could no longer command popularity in the eyes of a rising number of people abandoning traditional religion and adopting Christianity.

The confrontations witnessed the unification of traditional foes against the shared enemy, a cohesion that was exploited well.

The Ndebele's claims were recognized and were given worthy treatments from the whites, because the Ndebele looked for peace while the Shona persisted in war.

NAMIBIA

The Nama and Herero uprising 1904- 1907 (Namibia)

The German occupation and imposition of its colonial rule in Namibia met with a limited success in the 1880s and 1890s. The region was inhabited by three main ethnic groups; the first and second group comprised Bantu people of Ambo and Herero who engaged in crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The other group comprised the Nama who were Hottentots and engaged in Pastoralism. Both groups depended on land for cultivation and pasture, The history of Namibia in the nineteenth century was characterized by intense conflicts between the Nama and Herero who angered in Pastoralism and hunting. After the arrival of Europeans, the conflict was intensified since this foreigner' s used the. rivalry for their benefit. The Herero welcomed Germans who offered them a treaty of-protection and proposed to help them against the Nama. But this German and Herero alliance was opposed by the Nama leader Hedrick Witbooi since he understood the nature and real aims of Germans.

Chief Hedrick Witbooi realized that the Herero Chief could become just a mere subordinate chief under the German government The Nama and Herero rivalry threatened the German missionaries. Later on, in 1884, the Germans declared a protectorate over Namibia; they also occupied the region effectively. The German government introduced the settler policy between 1884 and 1904 which affected both the Nama and Herero hence accumulated a lot of grievances which resulted into uprising.

Causes of Nama and Herero Uprising

(i) The imposition of forced labour in 1896: Germans wanted labourers to work in plantations and in the construction of infrastructures such as roads, railways as well as public buildings. The African communities, that is, Nama and Herero were not used to the manual labour hence resisted to.

work. The German government used a lot of force to obtain labourers Africans were forced to work in settler farms and mines. This discontented the Africans, thus deciding to take up arms against Germans.

(ii) Another reason for Nama and Hereto uprising was the cattle raiding that was done frequently by the German traders and settlers. But cattle was the most treasured commodity among the Herero and Nama communities, robbing of cattle threatened the economic interest of these African commodities

(iii) Land alienation: This included grabbing much of the best grazing land in the central plateau of Namibia. The German government reserved the fertile land for settler settlement. The Nama and Herero depended on this land for cultivation and pasture; they were thrown out of this fertile land so as to give room for construction of railway and roads. This in turn created hostility between African communities and Germans.     .

(iv)Imposition of taxes: the Germans imposed taxes that had to be paid by Africans. They began to demand taxes in 1896. In order to make effective collection of taxes, Germans used force. But the African communities like the Eastern Herero and mbanderu, resisted by taking up arms against Germans.

(v) The destruction of traditional authority: after they had established their contrlt over Namibia, Germans did not pay attention to the region. For example, they imposed some policies without consulting the traditional chiefs from African communities. On the other hand, the Germans did not recognize the traditional rulers hence considered them as illiterate. Having been discontented with this situation, the Nama and Herero decided to resist against Germans so as to restore their traditional practice and their independence.     -

(vi) Harassment to the Herero indebted people by the Germans following the credit ordinance of 1903 that all debts had to be collected in one year time, after which the debt would be invalid. Initially, the German trader entered into commercial relationship with Africans, the Germans gained huge profits while Africans acquired a little profit. Many Africans were in debited by the Germans traders and were forced to pay back the debts. The Germans also lent some money to Africans at high interest rates, they also sold commodities to Africans on credit terms, but in most cases Africans failed to pay the money. The Germans urged the colonial government to enact laws that would enforce the Africans to payback the money. The law was enacted in 1903 and began to be implemented. Germans took the Africans livestock and land with the aim of selling them to regain their money. This law disappointed the African rulers and their subjects hence took up arms to resists against Germans:

(vii) The outbreak of Rinder pest disease: It. killed about ninety percent (90%) of Nama and Herero's cattle in 1903. This affected their economy and many sold their idle land to German settlers to sustain their life. But the rinder disease was interpreted by the religious leader's punishment from God since the Nama and IIerero cooperated with the whites, hence created bad luck in their communities, thus the people had to resist against the Germans so as to get rid of these misfortunes.

(viii) The German control over the religious beliefs: The Nama believed on their traditional religions and trusted their religious' leaders like chief Witbooi. When their beliefs were threatened by the Germans, Chief Witbooi organized and motivated his subjects to resist against the Germans since he believed that his army would defeat the Germans. He also promised these people several benefits after the resistance. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama Chief, Witbooi, was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Namaleadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper who continued the resistance until 1907 though the Germans reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed' by the Germans forces. They confiscated their cattle. and deposed all their chiefs, the African commuriities who survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the first word war.

The effects of the Nama Herero Uprising

After the uprising, the Nama and Herero lost their cattle and land to Germans. They became very poor and lived in severe life that could not enable to live in a conducive environment and good life

The African communities, such as the Hereto lost their life, only 16, 000 Herero survived out of previous population of 80, 000. Whereas only' 9800 Nama were alive in 1911, compared to 20, 000 people who survived in 1892:

The chief township' in Namibia was officially abolished by the German government.

There was an increasing number of Germans in Namibia. For example, up to 1903 the number of Germans was aboutA, 640 but after the war, the number increased up to 14, 840 in 1913.

Namibia became a German colony and the German administration continued to be strong. For this reason, the Nama and Herero uprising did not materialize and had Very minimal effect compared to that of Majimaji in Tanganyika.     .

After the uprising, the German government introduced concentration camps where African women and children were grouped. In these camps they lived in bad conditions hence many of them died of sun, famine and very cruel condition of forced labour. The Nama-Herero uprising went on until the end of 1905 when the Nama chief Witbooi was killed. Since then the Nama unity began to decline gradually. The Nama leadership was succeeded by Morenga, but he was also killed. He was succeeded by Chief Simon cooper, who continued the resistance until 1907 though the German reasserted their control. At the end of the uprising, the remaining Nama and Herero independence was destroyed by the German forces. They confiscated their cattle and deposed all their chiefs. African communities which survived were subordinated, forced to work in German farms and mines. This created hatred between Germans and African communities up to the period of the first World' War.

CAUSES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE.

There four major causes of African reaction to the colonial rule; These includes the following

I.                    COLONIAL ECONOMY

Land alienation; whereby Africans arable fertile- land was taken by the colonialists and

they became landless. The land was the major live hood of African it was grabbed from

them and distributed to the white settlers and colonial state plantations as to reduce the

African to mere suppliers of cheap labor to the colonial plantations.

Imposition of taxation by the colonialists. From the 1898 head tax was levied on all adult

Africans in the colony of Tanganyika, at least 1 year or its equivalent this amounted to at least a month’s wage on white-owned mine or two months or more on the white- owned farm. Later alone other taxes like hut tax, gun tax, Matiti tax, aimed at forcing Africans to provide cheap labor to the colonialist plantations and social service, and to facilitate colonial administration expenditure. Such heavy taxation led to mass uprising of the African to oppose colonialism.

Cattle confiscation so as to break the backbone of African economy and to be forced to integrate into capitalist economy. The African societies who were pastoralists that depended much on the cattle for their live hood, people like the Herero, Masai, Sukuma, their cattle were confiscated.

Forced labor and forced cropping, Africans were forced to produce cash crops and also forced to provide cheap labor, e.g. Kipande system in Kenya. In places were production,

did not exist migrate -Labour was carried out, the adult men ere to move in the areas of production were only substance wage was provided, accommodation was provided for only one person, the work's family was there for to remain at home in some far-off rural area and try to grow enough food to feed themselves.

Provision of low wages of African who worked on European farms mines and office the major aim was to-break the self-sufficiency African rural economy. It was no longer enough for the family to feed, clothes, and house itself. And on top of that cash was to be found to pay taxes regardless of the family's income.

II.                  POLITICAL CAUSES.

African local rulers were thrown from their administration and lost control of their

people and independence in general where by the colonialist establish the notorious colonial rule. Thus resistance to the colonial rule.

Africans lost their control over their trade that they controlled and benefited from. The

colonialists established the so called 'legitimate trade' which isolated the African traders,

like Abushir and Bwana Heri who lost control of trade at the coast, Jaja of Opobo, the

Mandika Sarnori all these resistance as to regain their trade control.

Destruction of African agriculture, which led to the problem-of hunger and famine. The

colonialists opened cash crop plantations hence resistance.

III. COLONIAL INJUSTICE AND OPPRESSION

Corporal punishment like caning of the lazy Africans

Destruction of African culture and introduction of western culture

Racism and segregation of Africans.

Intimidation and violence to the Africans.

 OBJECTIVES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCE.

Ø  To regain independence and their sovereignty this had been taken away by colonialists

Ø  To maintain peace and order in their society which they had experienced before the coming of colonialists.

Ø  To pursue and maintain African freedom which prevailed before the coming of colonizers.

Ø  To avoid humiliation and subjugation of by the foreigners.

Ø  To fight against land alienation and cattle confiscation.

Ø  To establish African trade this had been overthrown by slave trade and the so called legitimate trade

                        TOPIC TWO

                 Colonial Admiration.

BACK GROUND OF THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS.

Colonial administrative systems were the ways of controlling and maintaining colonial power in

colonies after the establishment of colonialism.

Colonialists including Germany, French, British, Portugal, Belgium etc; after colonizing African countries they introduced different administrative systems in their colonies depended on the following:

1. The nature of the people in the colonies, such as being cooperative, military, strong, weak etc.

2. Challenges encountered during acquiring colonies i.e. by strong resistance, collaboration etc.

3. The character of colonial power.for example Germany preferred direct rule while British preferred indirect rule and French preferred assimilation policy.

REASONS WHY COLONIALISTS INTRODUCED DIFFERENT ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS AFTER THE ESTABLISHMENT COLONIAL RULE.

1. To change the form or tradition of the African system of administration.

2. To maintain or ensure effective occupation/ control of the colony socially, politically and economically.

3. Maximization of profit through colonial exploitation by setting up a system of administration which favored colonialists.

4. To ensure peace and harmony in colonies after faced reactions/ resistances during the establishment of colonial rule.

5. To prepare the suitable and conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.

6. To fulfill the agreement reached during the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 on effective occupation of colonies.

Therefore; the reasons behind the establishment of different colonial administrative system in Africa after colonialists managed to defeat Africans, was due to many resistances colonialists faced while they were trying to introduce colonial rule in Africa.

Also colonialists introduced different administrative system due to:

1. Language problems.

2. Lack of enough manpower since they were few in number.

3. Colonialists needed a lot of fund to run their activities.

Therefore different challenges which colonialists faced during the time of establishing colonial rule led them to apply different forms/types of administrative systems.

TYPES/FORMS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS ADOPTED IN AFRICA

Ø  DIRECT RULE

Ø  INDIRECT RULE

Ø  ASSIMILATION POLICY

Ø  ASSOCIATION POLICY

Ø  DIRECT RULE

Direct rule was the form/ type of colonial administrative system applied by the Germans where by Africans were ruled directly without local ruler’s support. It was applied in Namibia, Tanganyika, Togo etc.

INDIRECT RULE

Indirect rule was the form of administrative system applied by the British where by Africans were ruled indirectly through local ruler’s support. It was applied in Uganda, Nigeria etc

ASSIMILATION POLICY

This was the French administrative system applied in her colonies which turned Africans to be like French citizens. African who were assimilated [changed/turned] to be French men were called ASSIMILADORS.

ASSOCIATION POLICY

Was the French administrative system which replaced assimilation policy which did not aim at turning Africans into French citizens instead it considered African culture.

All the above colonial systems were different from one colonial power [colonialist] to another. For example, British preferred using indirect rule in her colonies such as Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leon.

German used her direct rule in her colonies such as Tanganyika, Congo, Namibia, Angola and Mozambique. French used assimilation policies in Algeria and Senegal.

INDIRECT RULE

Introduction

Indirect rule was a administrative system applied [adopted] by the British where by African

traditional local rulers were allowed to participate in colonial administration by implementing the colonial policies.

Indirect rule was British administrative system which used local rulers/ chiefs to implement British colonial policies.

Within indirect rule African local rulers [chiefs] were given chances or allowed to govern their fellow Africans through orders and supervision from British colonial government.

British indirect rule adopted in many African countries after being succeed to

implement in the Northern Nigeria in the 1900-1906 and the whole Nigeria between 1912-1920 by British governor known as LORD LUGARD.

Therefore, indirect rule was first introduced by the British Governor Lord Lugard in Nigeria in 1912-1920.

FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIRECT RULE

Ø  Indirect rule aimed at getting cheap labours.

Ø  Indirect rule forces British law and ordinances.

Ø  Chiefs who were appointed were required to implement British policies to their fellow Africans.

Ø  Indirect rule forced and collected taxes from people.

Ø  Indirect rule aimed at maintaining peace and harmony on behalf of the British government.

Therefore the chiefs who were appointed to implement British government policies became a part of British colonial government hence chiefs were favored and given the following things;

·         Chiefs were given good accommodation e.g. houses.

·         Chiefs family include sons and daughters were given good social services i.e. education.

·         Chiefs were given colonial protection.

·         Chiefs were paid salaries.

·         Chiefs were given gifts.

WHY BRITISH USED/ APPLIED INDIRECT RULE?

·         Communication problems.

·         British adopted indirect rule because they had no good information links with the Africans than African local rulers such as chiefs and kings.

·         To avoid resistance.

·         The British used indirect rule because they wanted to avoid resistance since there was no direct contact between Africans and British but Africans with their rulers. Lack of manpower.

·         British were few in number hence used indirect rule because it was very difficult to rule large African population without assistance.

·         The system was economically cheap.

·         The African chiefs were not directly paid by the colonial governments. Also the African chiefs could not demand services from the colonial government such as accommodation, transport and medical services.

·         The system reduced resistance from Africans. Physical difficulties in Africa forced the British to use African chiefs. Thick forests, hostile climate and remoteness of the area; the British found difficult to penetrate the hinterland because of the named problems.

·         Language barrier. Some Africans could not be organized through radio and other means of communication therefore the use of African chiefs was efficient. The African chiefs would communicate with their people using their people.

·         The system ensured the collection of tax from the African communities as the chiefs lived with their people.

·         It was a suitable technique to govern illiterate African.

·         Tropical diseases which killed many British personals. e.g. Malaria

APPLICATION OF INDIRECT RULE IN NIGERIA BY LORD FREDRIC LUGARD

Indirect rule was first applied in Nigeria by the British governor known as Sir Fredrick Lugard in 1900-1906.

Indirect rule in Nigeria was applied after British encountered [faced] a lot of challenges from big tribes which had strong traditional administrative systems like Fulani aristocracy who governed Sokoto caliphate by using Islamic laws in Northern Nigeria.

Therefore, the British by using indirect rule which was required as a role model in the British colonial administration. Local native leaders in Nigeria continued to rule their traditional land, collect taxes and implement orders and duties as assigned by the British. So British succeeded to apply indirect rule in Northern Nigeria despite it was not successful much in Southern Nigeria in Yomba tribe.

Through indirect rule Lord Lugard was able to control Nigeria by using their local traditional rulling system and cooperative leaders who performed the following activities;

Ø  To reduce resistance from the people.

Ø  To reduce the political, economic and military costs.

Ø  To rule their land under the British control.

Ø  collection OF taxes.

Ø  implementation of British laws and policies.

Ø  Despite the fact that indirect rule succeeded to rule Nigeria especially Northern Nigeria, other areas in Nigeria like southern Nigeria was unsuccessful due to poor and less cooperation from YORUBA land chiefs or kings who did not organize and centralize Yoruba people since before.

Therefore, the British found the following as the failure of indirect rule in Southern Nigeria;

·         Southern Nigerian societies had strong traditional administrative system such as the use of chiefs for example Lagos had no chiefdom system.

·         Chiefs /Local rulers of Southern Nigeria were not given respect by the Yoruba people.

·         Local rulers were appointed to implement the British polices but they failed i.e. collection of taxes.

·         Southern Nigeria was decentralized than Northern Nigeria which was more centralized.

·         Therefore, indirect rule became very difficult to be applied in Southern Nigeria by Lord Lugard during his six years of administering Nigeria so as to transform it into commercial [economically] as well as politically and to establish British protectorate by using its local rulers.

WHY LORD FREDRICK LUGARD APPLIED /PREFERED APPLICATION OF INDIRECT

RULE IN THE BRITISH COLONIES

·         They used indirect rule to avoid administrative costs.

·         British wanted to avoid communication barriers, for example language problems and poor infrastructures.

·         British were few in number so indirect rule solved the problem of manpower.

·         Some of the African societies were centralized hence no need of the new colonial administrative system. For example, sokoto caliphat, Bugando.

·         Some of the African communities were not competent to control themselves with the British assistance hence used indirect rule.

·         British wanted to spread their superiority complex over Africans.

·         Lord Lugard preferred indirect rule because it avoided resistance and conflicts from local rulers and people.

STRUCTURE OF THE BRITISH INDIRECT RULE

Indirect rule administrative system which was applied by the British in her colonies was arranged in different structures to ensure effective colonial control over colony and good administrative machinery which will prepare conducive environment for establishment of colonial economy.

The structure of indirect rule was as follows;

·         Provincial commissioner was a British lived in certain regions to represent the governor.

·         District commissioner was a British [white] lived in district level representing provision commissioner; he lived with people and gave them orders through local rulers.

·         Colonial secretary stayed in London [UK].

·         Local chiefs were local rulers appointed by British who were given orders by colonial officers include provincial commissioners and district commissioners to supervise in the daily activities and local ordinances.

·         Governor appointed in UK and hired in colonies.

·         Head men. These were Africans who received orders from local chiefs and implement them to the people [Africans] by using force once people resisted.

PROBLEMS/ CHALLENGES BRITISH FACED IN IMPLEMENTING THE USE OF INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM IN NIGERIA.

Despite the British succeeded to rule Africans indirectly through their local rulers, they met a number of challenges, since British indirect rule introduced different policies and systems. in Africa which was new and not existed in Africa before such as:

•  Poor infrastructures. Absence of good infrastructures such as roads, railways, and harbor phones made the failure to access information.

·         Payment of taxes, forced labour, land alienation, introduction of coercive apparatus such as police, army, court etc.

·         The following were problems/challenges /difficulties Britain faced during implementing the use of indirect rule;

·         Illiteracy of the masses. Some of the societies in Nigeria such as the Yoruba and the Abeokuta who became independent in 1893; due to their illiterate they organized people to oppose indirect rule.

·         Harsh British policies. Some of the indirect rule British policies such as forced labour and taxation which was introduced to the people were new and unpopular hence reacted by the people of Nigeria especially Igbo.

·         Absence of centralized administration in North Eastern Nigerian societies, such as Igbo and Yoruba were not well centralized like the Sokoto caliphate or Buganda kingdom hence made the application of indirect rule to be very difficult due to lack of cooperation and local rulers’ support.

·         Opposition / resistance from the local rulers. Some of the local rulers did not support British indirect rule for example rulers from Yomba and Abeokuta.

INDIRECT RULE SYSTEM IN TANGANYIKA

Tanganyika formerly was a German colony from 1886 after Berlin conference. After the end of the first world war of 1914-1918 Germany lost Tanganyika colony to British who took the victory of the war.

During German rule in Tanganyika they used direct rule system thus faced a lot of resistances from Tanganyika societies such as Hehe resistance, Yao and Chagga resistance.

Therefore, after the British took control over the Tanganyika colony; they decided to change the former German direct rule which used Jumbes and Akidas and introduced indirect rule.

The first British governor in Tanganyika who was known as Sir Donald Cameroon initiated and introduced indirect rule in Tanganyika. Sir Donald Cameroon decided to introduce indirect rule in Tanganyika due to the influence and motivation from governor Lord Fredrick Lugard who succeeded to control Nigeria through indirect rule so sir Donald Cameroon wanted to copy that system of indirect rule and apply it in Tanganyika hence he met the following challenges:

THE CHALLENGES /DIFFICULTIES SIR DONALD CAMEROON FACED WHEN HE INTRODUCED INDIRECT RULE IN TANGANYIKA

Absence of traditional administrative system. Germany removed all local rulers’ administration during their rule in Tanganyika, so it was difficult for Sir Donald Cameroon to introduce them again.

Illiteracy and ignorance of the masses over indirect rule. Tanganyika was controlled and ruled by the German power for a very long time directly so indirect rule was a new system which was not known.

Poor organization of permanent chiefs. Few tribes in Tanganyika recognized their chiefs and they had status and power, less executive, financially and judiciary for example the Chagga.

Poor infrastructure. Indirect rule got a lot of challenges in Tanganyika since the country was big while there was poor network and communication links to reach and coordinate local chiefs.

Absence of local authorities in Tanganyika societies such as; coastal tribes which had no traditional local authorities since Arabs’ domination which introduced Islamic law. Due to this Sir Donald Cameroon get no support of local rulers in his administration.

Despite the fact that Sir Donald Cameroon met a lot of challenges /problems in the introduction of indirect rule in Tanganyika as we have seen above, he preferred and forced to introduce indirect rule through;

The native authority ordinance of 1926 and the coast ordinance of 1919.

These two laws [ordinances] aimed at creating a solid foundation for the indirect rule administration and local authorities.

Through these two laws [ordinance] local chiefs were required and given the following tasks and duties;

Tax collection such as hut tax and poll tax.

Chiefs were responsible for enforcing British laws and orders.

Chiefs were given judiciary power to enforce their decisions according to customary laws.

Chiefs were responsible to implement British policies, law, ordinances and orders to their people.

THE EFFECT /IMPACT OF INDIRECT RULE TO TANGANYIKA AND BRITISH AFRICAN COLONIES.

Exploitation of African resources: - Indirect rule was introduced by the British for the purpose of exploiting African resources easily through local rulers support such as land, labours and minerals.

Indirect rule promoted [boosted] tribalism. Indirect rule separated African societies in ethnic/tribal identities since it favored some tribes including those whose local rulers were given different opportunities than the other tribes.

Indirect rule weakened the traditional administration systems.

Indirect rule system promoted the problem of education, health and employment opportunities.

Indirect rule system introduced and widened social differences among natives.(creation of classes in the society)

The system commented and centralized bureaucracy through the use of district commissioners.

The greatest fault in indirect rule was that it completely excluded from the local government the African educated elites whose number increased over the year.

It made Africans hate their local rulers [leaders] who were used during indirect rule and made Africans not to believe in them.

THE DIRECT RULE SYSTEM

It was a form of colonial administrative system which ruled Africans directly by replacing African traditional, political and administrative organizations.

Direct rule was mainly adopted by Germany in colonies such as Tanganyika, Namibia, Cameroon and Togo; also Portuguese applied direct rule in her colonies.

Why British used direct rule in some of her colonies instead of indirect rule.

Presence of many whites such as in Zimbabwe.

Plenty of resources available in the colonies.

The nature of African colony. British decided to use direct rule when Africans were ignorant, reluctant and not supportive of indirect rule.

Good communication and infrastructures such as roads, railways and harbors led the British to use direct rule.

Absence of strong centralized states.

Absence of resistances.

Absence of tropical diseases made the British not seek for local rulers’ support.

THE BRITISH DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE [SOUTHERN RHODESIA].

Zimbabwe after being colonized by British in 1890’s under the company known as British South African Company (BSACO) led by prominent imperialist named Cecil Rhodes who ruled directly and called Zimbabwe as southern Rhodesia due to his effort and financial resources used to occupy shone territories.

Therefore after Zimbabwe had been colonized by British and named as southern Rhodesia many Europeans came to live in Zimbabwe because it was a huge country having a lot of resources such as fertile land and minerals due to this British ruled Zimbabwe by using direct rule.

WHY THE BRITISH WHITE SETTLERS USED DIRECT RULE IN ZIMBABWE

·         Presence of many white settlers in Zimbabwe. Cecil Rhodes influenced many white settlers to invest in Zimbabwe so there was no manpower problem hence direct rule.

·         Absence of a centralized state. Zimbabwe had no strong centralized state since imposition of colonial rule disturbed the system hence direct rule.

·         The effect of the Chimurenga war [Shona and Ndebele]. Chimurenga war left enemity between Zimbabwe people and the Europeans hence difficult to involve Africans in their administration.

·         Absence of local chiefs/ local rulers of Zimbabwe such as Indunas were no longer existed during the resistance between British and Shona and Ndebele.

·         People of Zimbabwe did not want to be colonized by the British.

·         The richness of resources in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was a rich colony having fertile land, minerals etc. made British to wish to rule it directly so as to exploit resources efficiently.

·         Poor support from Zimbabwe local chiefs /rulers. Local chiefs were not happy with British since their position and status eroded during British colonial rule that is why they did not want to support them in administration hence British used direct rule.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECT RULE APPLIED BY THE BRITISH IN ZIMBABWE

Zimbabwe was proclaimed as a crown colony. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made Zimbabwe as British settlers’ part and parcel of their mother land country [Britain].

It based on emergence of law and order. Direct rule led to increase of many laws and orders in Zimbabwe.

·         Direct rule led Zimbabwe to be under control of British South African Company [BSACO] in 1890 to 1923.

·         Direct rule in Zimbabwe made educated people neglected. Direct rule in Zimbabwe made the educated people neglected not to be involved in the British government as a result of the armed struggle during fighting for independence and freedom.

·         It based on excessive oppression and suppression. Africans were highly oppressed and suppressed by British settlers through direct rule using coercive apparatus such as police and soldiers.

·         Direct rule gave settlers in Zimbabwe legislative and political rights. British settlers in Zimbabwe were highly empowered politically, economically and favored by laws; for example, in 1923 settlers attained their self-government.

·         Direct rule alienated Zimbabwe fertile land. Through direct rule the British settlers acquired massive fertile land left the Zimbabwean's people landless hence provide labour in the settler’s land and farms.

·         The British direct rule in Zimbabwe brought a lot of negative impact to the people of Zimbabwe such as; oppression, exploitation, land alienation, forced labour, taxation etc. as a result people of Zimbabwe took arms [armed struggle] during fighting for independence in 1980.

DIRECT RULE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

Direct rule was form of colonial administrative system which did not involve African rulers support i.e. Germany.

Germany preferred much to use direct rule in most of her colonies in Africa such as; Tanganyika, Namibia, Cameroon, Togo etc. direct rule were also applied by the Belgium, Portugal etc. in their colonies.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECT RULE

·         It was not simple to control because German ruled Africans directly.

·         It faced communication problems because of language barriers.

·         Local chiefs were not given chances in colonial administrations.

·         It was very expensive since it needed lots of costs.

·         It faced many resistances from Africa.

·         It faced problems of manpower since Germans were few in number.

WHAT WERE THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIRECT AND DIRECT RULE.

SIMILARITIES

·         Both aimed at colonizing /control Africans.

·         Both faced resistance or opposition from Africans

·         Both were based on exploitation of African resources.

·         Both based on oppression of Africans through the use of force i.e. police, army and court.

·         Both based on racial segregation since African colour was regarded as inferior over white colour.

·         Both were capitalist systems.

·         Both failed to meet their demands.

DIFFERENCES

·         Direct rule was used by the Germans while indirect rule was used by the British.

·         Direct rule did not use local chiefs while indirect rule used local chiefs.

·         Indirect rule did not face many resistances from Africans while direct rule faced many resistances.

·         Indirect rule was easy to manage while direct rule was difficult to manage because of language problems.

·         Indirect rule needed small Europeans’ manpower while direct rule needed large manpower.

·         Indirect rule was cheap but direct rule was expensive.

·         Indirect rule created puppet class among Africans who cooperated with the British and support

ASSIMILATION AND ASSOCIATION POLICY BY FRENCH.

French in her colonies such Cape Verde, Ivory Coast [cote devoir] Senegal, Saint Louis and Risqué applied two administrative systems such as Assimilation policy and Association.

Assimilation policy

Was an administrative system applied by French in her colonies, which aimed at turning or transforming Africans into Frenchmen or citizens. A person who assimilated was called Assimilador.Assimiladors was taught how to behave or think like French people. Assimilation is a term derived from the French word assimiler means cause to resemble.

French introduced assimilation policy to her colonies so as to spread her culture of superiority all over the world. Therefore, the introduction or application of assimilation policy in French colonies goes to them with the introduction of French language, institutions, laws, religion and customs. Colonies or persons to follow assimilation policy [assimiladors] were supposed to follow the French culture hence enjoy right just like French citizens.

THE REASONS WHY FRENCH APPLIED ASSIMILIATION POLICY IN HER COLONIES.

·         To facilitate French exploitation. Assimilation aimed at exploiting Africans smoothly by creating false consciousness to those who assimilated [assimiladors] to work for the benefits of the French.

·         Cheap economically since assimilators work and behave just like French and became passive.

·         French revolution of 1789. French applied assimilation policy in her colonies since they said that; the French revolution which occurred in 1789 advocated for the equality, fraternity and freedom to all regardless of Vaile or color.

·         Assimilation policy applied by the French to spread their superiority all over the world. Since the Africans assimilated would continue to spread French superiority.

·         To spread French culture and civilization. French applied assimilation policy since they wanted to spread their culture through language and customs.

·         Assimilation applied to turn African to behave like French citizen.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRENCH ASSIMILATION POLICY

There were to be commune representatives in the French national assembly. The laws applicable in France were well applied in the territories.

The French Africans were considered as a great obstacle for colonial rule.

The French administrative structure was more oppressive than that of the British.

Africans were allowed to register as French citizens and they could seek elections as deputies in Paris.

The French administrators were given more judicial powers in the provinces.

The French decided not to use African traditional institutions in their administration.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE ASSIMILATION SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION

·         Both weakened African traditions and Islamic religion in West Africa by introducing Christianity i.e. Roman Catholic.

·         Both destroyed African traditional authorities and leaders since assimilated Africans replaced many to the traditional leaders.

·         Both undermined African culture; African culture were regarded as inferior towards French culture which regarded as regarded as superior and civilized for e.g. French language.

·         Assimilation policy weakened Africans traditions such as Islamic religion in west Africa by introducing Christianity for example Roman Catholic church.

·         Colony was incorporated into the French republic and regarded as an oversea province of France speaking people in West African still have close relationship with the French people than their fellow African countries.

·         Assimilation policy integrated /allowed Africans to participate in French political matters in French, Paris. Assimilation policy allowed African to participate in France parliament for example Blaise Diagne was elected as deputy in the French parliament.

                                TOPIC THREE

                           Colonial Economy

Colonial economy was the economic undertaking which were operated by the colonialist or was the king of the economy introduced by the colonialists in their colonies. These included agriculture, mining, communication and transportation of commerce and trade. The colonialists introduced these kinds of economies in Oder to fulfill their economic demands such as raw materials, cheap labor, areas for investments and areas for settlement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY

It was export-import oriented colonial economy specialized in production of raw materials for the metropolitan industries and importation of manufactured goods in the colonies.

It was based on the exploitation of African resources such as man power minerals and so on.

It was based on monoculture system of production.

They specialized in the production of major commodities such as Mauritius - sugarcane and Ghana - cocoa.

It involved the building of physical infrastructure such as roads, harbours and railways for easy transportation of raw materials.

It was characterized by Domination of European. African role of middlemen was suppressed instead of that European established their trade companies.

Colonial production was based on coercion.

The colonialists used Africa as a dump place for their manufactured commodities such as clothes, wine, sweets and beards. Introduction of money economy. Establishment of processing industries such as cashewnut pupling industries.

OBJECTIVES OF COLONIAL ECONOMY

Colonial economies were shaped by the interests of the metropolitan economy, therefore, they responded to the demands of the colonial powers.

Objectives of the Colonial economy were:

·         Colonies were expected to import manufactured goods like clothes, shoes, blankets and utensils from Europe.

·         The Colonized people were expected to provide cheap labour for the benefit of colonial masters.

·         Colonies were expected to provide raw materials, both agricultural products and minerals, to the factories of the European countries. Examples of the agricultural raw materials includes cotton, coffee, sisal, pyre thrum, tea, cocoa and palm oil.

·         Colonies were also expected to be self- supporting. This means that the colonized people were expected to raise revenues that cool support administrative costs of colony.

·         Finally, in order to insure that exploitation of colonial resources was done efficiently, law and order was to be maintained. This in turn would facilitate the exploitation of resources for the benefit of colonial master.

METHODS USED TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL ECONOMY

These were three methods used to establish economy which were:

PRESERVATION

Under preservation the colonial economy preserved the followings: -

Labour unit. eg The use of family labour

Tradition system of production e.g shifting cultivation mixed farming and inter cropping. This was done mainly in the peasant economy.

CREATION

The colonialists introduced the new elements in the pre-African economy things which were introduced were:

Introduction of money. e.g Indian currency like Rupees during Germany rule.

Introduction of kipande system. forced people to walk with identification card

Introduction of cash crops.

Taxation

Forced labour

migrant labour- Migrant labours were the labours comes from the distant areas where the labour reservations were established.

DESTRUCTION

Local handcraft industries were destructed.

importing ready manufactured goods to Africa.

Banning of local industries.

The colonialists instilled retaining some elements of pre-colonial economy to support production of raw materials which were needed by European example of things which preserved were

Traditional tools in peasant agriculture and families remained as the basic unit of production and pre-colonial relation production feudal societies were reserved.

WHY DID COLONIALISTS USED PRESERVATION METHOD /PRESERVED SOME TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ECONOMIC SYSTEMS.

Presence of resistance from the masses. In some areas in Africa which were centralized were strongly resisted new colonial economies systems e.g. disagree to pay taxes, land alienation etc.

Ignorance and absence of reactions of people. Colonialists preserved some traditional African economic systems because in some areas Africans were ignorant with a new economic system and were not ready to apply them.

Reluctant/ conservativeness of the people. Some areas Africans were not ready for the changes hence colonialists preserved their traditional economic systems.

Absence of enough land. In some areas land alienation was impossible hence colonialists left the Africans to maintain their traditional economic systems under colonialist supervision.

Good traditional labour system. Some of the African societies had good traditional labour system that is family which ensures constant supply of labour and production which prevent colonialist to apply new economic systems.

Awareness of cash crops production. In some areas In Africa including Buganda they had knowledge of practices cash crops even before colonial rule hence colonialists preserved them.

SECTORS OF COLONIAL ECONOMY AND THE SPECIFICATION [SPECIFIC AREAS WHERE IT WAS PRACTICED].

There are [5] five main factors of colonial economy introduced in Africa;

i. Agricultural sector

                Peasant economy

                Plantation economy

               Settler economy

ii. Mining economy sector. It deals with the exploitation of minerals.

iii.Transport and communication

iv. Trade

TYPES OF AGRICULTURE INTRODUCED IN AFRICA DURING COLONIAL ECONOMY.

·         peasant economy/agriculture e.g. in Uganda

·         settler’s agriculture in Kenya and Zimbabwe

·         plantation agriculture

·         peasant agriculture

These are small scale agriculture productions where by a farmer produces both food crops and cash crops.

Colonialists introduced peasant agriculture during colonial rule for the following aims/reasons;

Earning cash by selling cash crops.

Production and producing food crops for their survival during colonial rule.

To ensure that peasants [small scale farmers] are producing for capitalists.

HOW PEASANT ECONOMY WAS INTRODUCED IN AFRICA.

·         Introduction of peasant, cash crop farming in Africa was difficult because of the following reasons:

·         Poor technology. Most of the peasants were using poor technology in the farming i.e. hand hoes, axes, Blunt knife

·         African traditional was only producing food crops for direct consumption.

·         Ignorance. Many Africans were ignorant [not aware] on cash crop production.

·         Readiness of the people. Many people were not ready to produce cash crops..

Due to the above difficulties colonialists do/ applied the following things in order to introduce peasant cash crops production;

        i.            Missionaries’ persuasion. Missionaries persuade Africans who converted to Christianity to grow cash crops.

      ii.            The use of force. Those Africans who rejected to grow cash crops were forced to grow cash crops through;

    iii.            Orders from the colonialist, chiefs and African head men received orders from colonialists to force their fellow Africans to grow cash crops.

    iv.            Through seeds distribution and cash crops planting supervision.

      v.            Establishment of large farms in villages which grow cash crops where by people were forced to work there.

Restructuring of colonies.

Encouraged the use of poor (crude) technologies in production i.e. the use of hand hoes,  Blunt knife ,axes etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANT AGRICULTURE [ECONOMY].

Family was the unit of production. Peasant economy was characterized by the members of the family to be sources of labour in production.

Peasant based on a small unit of land. Peasant was characterized by practice of agriculture on a small piece of land which was populated.

Peasant based on inter-cropping. Peasant practiced more than one type of crop in a single area for food and cash crops.

Peasant used poor technology. The use of poor technology in production such as hand hoes, axes and pangas were much applied in the peasant economy.

Peasant used on a dense population made it hard for land alienation to be practiced, if land alienation was used, many people would be affected and there would be chaos in the area.

The colonial government was afraid of the centralized kingdoms that proved to be tough against the establishment of settlers’ agriculture.

Some areas were tough and unfit for white settlement i.e. Uganda equatorial region had high temperatures that discouraged white settlements.

Certain crops i.e. [cotton and coffee in Uganda] needed great care and could not be mixed easily with other systems of agriculture.

Centralized and strong kingdoms in Uganda proved efficiency and capability to organize and supervise agricultural activities in their areas. These traditional chiefs were paid lowly for supervising that activity.

Taxation was imposed on the people so that they could cultivated cash crops.

SETTLER ECONOMY

This involved production by foreigners. These foreigner’s usual presented the interests of the metropolis (i.e. their main interest were mining and agriculture in the colonized countries).

The promotion of agricultural production was to go hand in hand with settlements in Africa, especially in those areas that were fertile.

Settlers settled in big numbers in central Africa (Malaysia Zambia, Zimbabwe), South Africa, parts of French equatorial Africa, French West Africa, and in East Africa (Kenya).

FEATURES OF SETTLER ECONOMY

        i.            Land alienation with differently issue land ordinaries, in 1900 the land occupation ordinance was enacted in Zambia.

      ii.            The ordinance required that Europeans who had been allocated land must occupy and use that land or otherwise they would pay taxes for leaving such land redundant.

In Kenya in 1597, the land regulation office set a si.. vacant land for European settlements, in 1902, the native Land ordinance allowed the commissioner to sell or give crown land to the Europeans, and in 19.. large scale land alienation in Kikuyu began.

    iii.            Forced labour: The French, German land Portuguese follow a similar policy of forced labour and unpaid labour.

Forced labour was required to reduce costs that were necessary in public services. In Zimbabwe in 1897, the Nature Regulation Act was passed, forcing African chiefs to produced labourers at law coast.

    iv.            Taxation: the hut tax was introduced in Malawi in early 1890 in Zimbabwe in 1898, and in Zambia in 1900. In Kenya the Hut Tax was introduced in 1980, and poll tax in 1910.

The intention of the tax was to cover administrative expansion ways by which Africans would be forced to work in European farms in order to raise money to pay their taxes.

      v.            Migrant labourers were transported from faraway places to work in settler plantations.

The development of infrastructures to serve the settlers.

WHY SETTLER DOMINATED IN KENYA THAN IN UGANDA OR TANGANYIKA?

The following are the reasons for why settler dominated in Kenya than in Uganda;

i.        Africans were prohibited to grow cash crops. This also made British settlers to attracted in Kenya as there were competition from Africans.

ii.      Construction of Buganda railway which facilitated the transportation of raw materials from interior to Mombasa.

iii.    Climatic condition. Climatic condition in Kenya made Europeans to be attracted especially in Kenya highlands. also this areas was very fertile.

iv.    Kenya was made a 'crown land' means for Europeans settlements as results Africans were no right to own land.

v.      Low population in Kikuyu highland, this made land alienation possible hence no strong resistance.

vi.    Settlers were favoured in Kenya. This is because settlers came in colonies under the influence of colonial state so the colonial state did everything to favour them hence settlers had critical influence on colonial government.

PLANTATION ECONOMY IN TANGANYIKA

This commodity production entailed massive exploitation of land and intensive exploitation of African labour. The owners of the plantations were usually capitalists In Europe employing managers to supervise production i.e. sisal and coffee Estates in Tanganyika.

WHY PLANTATION AGRICULTURE WAS ESTABLISHED IN TANGANYIKA

Due to change of colonial masters. In the beginning Tanganyika was under Germany but after the 1 st world war Tanganyika became under the British.

Ø                                                     he interests of the British colonial governors in Tanganyika. For example, sir Byatt 1919-1924 from Somali and Donald Cameroon from Nigeria; these were committed to peasant or plantation agriculture rather than settler economy.

Ø  Tanganyika had a large area where settler agriculture was not suitable to manage it but; they settled only on highlands around Kilimanjaro, Usambara and South Western highlands of Iringa and Tukuyu.

Ø  There was no settler policy in Tanganyika as in Kenya policy was committed to African production.

Ø  There was no good and efficient transport and communication; it was not very much provided in this particular sphere of influence.

MINING ECONOMY

Mining was another area of colonial economic activity; among of their demands was obtaining minerals in Africans such as Gold.

Examples of areas where mining economy was taking place were;

South Africa.

Kimberly -diamond discovered in 1867.

Wit water- gold discovered in 1886.

East Africa.

Mwadui [Tanganyika] -diamond

Geita and Musoma - gold

Central Africa.

Southern Rhodesia - gold and coal

Belgium, Congo - copper, tin, zinc and lead

Zambia - copper and lead

Ghana gold mines