BIOLOGY FORM ONE TOPICS

                                                                                               
                              TOPIC ONE:

        INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

   Biology is the term which derived from two Greek words , Bio and Lagos,  that is bio means Life and logos means study .

 Therefore, biology is the branch of science which deals with the study of life. Or biology is the branch of science which deals with the study of living organisms and non-living organisms.

 A person who study biology is called biologist. Or a person who specialized to study biology is called biologist.

                          BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY

Biology as a subject it has two main branches which are Botany and zoology.

Botany is the branch of biology which deals with the study of plant while Zoology refer to the branch of biology which deals with the study of animals.  Note a person who study botany is called botanist and A person who study zoology is called zoologist.

       Other branches of biology ;

Virology ; is a branch of biology which deals with the study of viruses. A person who study virology is called virologist.

 Bacteriology is a branch of biology which deals with the study of bacteria. A person who study bacteria is called bacteriologist.

Mycology ; is a branch of biology which deals with the study of fungi. A person who study mycology is called mycologist.

Immunology ; is a branch of biology which deals with the study of body defense against  disease and foreign substance .  A person who study immunology is called immunologist.

Anatomy ; is a branch of biology which deals with the study of structure of living things . A person who study anatomy is called anatomist.

Ecology ; is a branch of biology which deals with the relationship among of living things and between organisms and it's surroundings.

  

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS:

In real life a living thing should possess   some characteristics which introduce them as living thing in a specific environment . Those characteristics are follows;

- nutrition, respiration , feeding , growth , movement or locomotion , excretion, sensitivity .

  Nutrition ; is the process where by living organisms obtain or acquire foods from their environment for the purpose of repair  , gaining energy and growth. Or Nutrition is the process of nourishing or being nourished .

   Feeding ;Refer to the act or process of taking food into the body of living organisms . means that living organisms take food in the body after being digested.

 Respiration ;  refer to the process where by food substance is broken into small particles in the body of living organisms in order to release energy for metabolism activities .In his process oxygen is used to burn or breakdown food substance.

 Growth is the process where by living organisms increase their size  or growth is the permanent increase in size and dry weight of an organisms.

Note ; animals grow and reach a certain point where growth less occur or stationary point but plant grow continuously through their lives.

Reproduction ; refer to the process where by living organisms produce new one with the same type or kind. Living organisms produce new one in order to replace others which  missed through death.

 Excretion ; is the process of removing waste substances or products from their body ( living organisms) such ad carbon dioxide , water , urea ,  ammonia and undigested food.

Irritability (sensitivity ) Refer to the ability of an organisms to respond With the stimulus. But stimulus is any thing which cause changes or response in an organisms  , examples of stimulus are heat, temperature smell etc.

Note all organisms sense to the change in the surrounding by using sense organs such as eyes , nose , skin , ears ,and tongue.

         Importance of studying biology.

The following are the importance of biology to living organisms our surroundings

1.      Biology helps us to understand ourselves better simply because we are living things.

2.      Biology help us to understand our environment better and principles of conservations it.

3.      Skills and knowledge of biology can be applied to other scientific fields such as agriculture, forestry , medicine , nutrition , pharmacy and veterinary science.

4.      Knowledge of biology  help us to balance the population  of the country through  method of family planning such as use of condoms , coitus method,  diaphragm , cervical cap , pills , the shot , the patch ,sexual abstinence,  vaginal rings , the sponge , contraceptive foam , intrauterine devices , calendar method (rhythm) , sterilization .

5.      Knowledge of biology helps us to improve our health since  causes , symptoms , transmissions and treatments are of various diseases are studies in biology.

6.      Knowledge of biology helps us to avoid ourselves from magical believe , superstitions and other traditional taboos .

TOPIC TWO :   LABORATORY RULES AND APPARATUS

Laboratory: a building, part of a building, or other place equipped to conduct scientific experiments, tests, investigations, etc., or to manufacture chemicals, medicines, Laboratory are used for Biology experiments, Chemistry, physics and Testing for daily life problems. Example.  Outbreak diseases.

Rules and precautions in laboratory :

• Report all accidents, injuries, and breakage of glass or equipment to instructor immediately.
• Keep pathways clear by placing extra items (books, bags, etc.) on the shelves or under the work tables. If under the tables, make sure that these items can not be stepped on.
• Long hair (chin-length or longer) must be tied back to avoid catching fire.
• Wear sensible clothing including footwear. Loose clothing should be secured so they do not get caught in a flame or chemicals.
• Work quietly — know what you are doing by reading the assigned experiment before you start to work. Pay close attention to any cautions described in the laboratory exercises
• Do not taste or smell chemicals.
• Wear safety goggles to protect your eyes when heating substances, dissecting, etc.
• Do not attempt to change the position of glass tubing in a stopper.
• Never point a test tube being heated at another student or yourself. Never look into a test tube while you are heating it.
• Unauthorized experiments or procedures must not be attempted.
• Keep solids out of the sink.
• Leave your work station clean and in good order before leaving the laboratory.
• Do not lean, hang over or sit on the laboratory tables.
• Do not leave your assigned laboratory station without permission of the teacher.
• Learn the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash station, first aid kit and safety shower.
• Fooling around or "horse play" in the laboratory is absolutely forbidden. Students found in violation of this safety rule will be barred from particpating in future labs and could result in suspension.
• Anyone wearing acrylic nails will not be allowed to work with matches, lighted splints, bunsen burners, etc.
• Do not lift any solutions, glassware or other types of apparatus above eye level.
• Follow all instructions given by your teacher.
• Learn how to transport all materials and equipment safely.
• No eating or drinking in the lab at any time.

The following are example of equipment’s which  are used in laboratory.

Microscope:  This includes two types mostly of microscope which are Compound microscope and low power microscope.   Where: -

Compound Microscope Parts

A high power or compound microscope achieves higher levels of magnification than a stereo or low power microscope. It is used to view smaller specimens such as cell structures which cannot be seen at lower levels of magnification. Essentially, a compound microscope consists of structural and optical components. However, within these two basic systems, there are some essential components that every microscopist should know and understand. These key microscope parts are illustrated and explained below.

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

The three basic, structural components of a compound microscope are the head, base and arm.

• Head/Body houses the optical parts in the upper part of the microscope
• Base of the microscope supports the microscope and houses the illuminator
• Arm connects to the base and supports the microscope head. It is also used to carry the microscope.

When carrying a compound microscope always take care to lift it by both the arm and base, simultaneously.

OPTICAL COMPONENTS

There are two optical systems in a compound microscope: Eyepiece Lenses and Objective Lenses:

Eyepiece or Ocular:  is what you look through at the top of the microscope. Typically, standard eyepieces have a magnifying power of 10x. Optional eyepieces of varying powers are available, typically from 5x-30x.

Eyepiece Tube:  holds the eyepieces in place above the objective lens. Binocular microscope heads typically incorporate a diopter adjustment ring that allows for the possible inconsistencies of our eyesight in one or both eyes. The monocular (single eye usage) microscope does not need a diopter. Binocular microscopes also swivel (Interpapillary Adjustment) to allow for different distances between the eyes of different individuals.

Objective Lenses:  are the primary optical lenses on a microscope. They range from 4x-100x and typically, include, three, four or five on lens on most microscopes. Objectives can be forward or rear-facing.

Nosepiece houses the objectives. The objectives are exposed and are mounted on a rotating turret so that different objectives can be conveniently selected. Standard objectives include 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x although different power objectives are available.

Coarse and Fine Focus knobs:  are used to focus the microscope. Increasingly, they are coaxial knobs - that is to say they are built on the same axis with the fine focus knob on the outside. Coaxial focus knobs are more convenient since the viewer does not have to grope for a different knob.

Stage:  is where the specimen to be viewed is placed. A mechanical stage is used when working at higher magnifications where delicate movements of the specimen slide are required.

Stage Clips:  are used when there is no mechanical stage. The viewer is required to move the slide manually to view different sections of the specimen.

Aperture: is the hole in the stage through which the base (transmitted) light reaches the stage.

Illuminator;  is the light source for a microscope, typically located in the base of the microscope. Most light microscopes use low voltage, halogen bulbs with continuous variable lighting control located within the base.

Condenser : is used to collect and focus the light from the illuminator on to the specimen. It is located under the stage often in conjunction with an iris diaphragm.

Iris Diaphragm:  controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located above the condenser and below the stage. Most high quality microscopes include an Abbe condenser with an iris diaphragm. Combined, they control both the focus and quantity of light applied to the specimen.

Condenser Focus Knob moves the condenser up or down to control the lighting focus on the specimen.

               Figure: compound microscope

Light or low power microscope:

Definition of Light Microscopy

A light microscope uses focused light and lenses to magnify a specimen, usually a cell. In this way, a light microscope is much like a telescope, except that instead of the object being very large and very far away, it is very small and very close to the lens.

Light microscopes send light through a path that first focuses the light into a tight beam and then passes that light through a sample, which creates an image. That image then passes through one or more lenses to magnify it until it reaches the user's eye or a camera. Because light needs to pass through the sample, it must be either very small or very thin. Most cells (bacterial or otherwise) are both small and transparent, and so light can easily pass through them.

Light microscopes can come in several forms.

Simple light microscopes use a single lens to magnify an object and cannot reach high magnification. Compound light microscopes use two sets of lenses - an objective lens and an eyepiece - to produce images. Monocular microscopes have one eyepiece, while binocular microscopes have two eyepieces and reduce eye strain.

Uses of Light Microscopy

Microscopes are essential tools for scientists. They are used in microbiology, material science, mineralogy and medicine.

A combination of staining and light microscopy can allow scientists to identify different kinds of bacteria. Staining involves adding special dyes to a smear of cells. These stains are diagnostic for different kinds of cell membranes. Gram staining, for instance, uses crystal violet to stain Gram-positive bacteria and safranin to stain Gram-negative bacteria. These will show up in the light microscope as purple Gram-positive cells and pink Gram-negative cells. Being able to identify bacteria in this way is helpful as many Gram-negative cells are associated with infection and disease. Diagram of light microscope.

Figure: light microscope

How to handle and care for microscope:

10 Tips for Microscope Care

Proper care and maintenance of your microscope can extend its life by many years.

Tip 1: Handle with care

Most microscope problems occur as a result of improper handling. When carrying your microscope, hold it by the base and the metal support arm. Do not pick it up by the stage, as this can cause misalignment. When transporting it, use a microscope bag.

Tip 2: Keep lenses clear of slides

When using your microscope and adjusting the focus you will need to lower the objective lens down as far as it will go. However, you should never allow the lens to touch the slide you are looking at. Dirty lenses can be difficult to clean.

Tip3: Clean after using immersion oil

If using immersion oil, always ensure the objectives are cleaned immediately after use. Objective, eyepieces and condenser may be removed for cleaning. Use only lens paper and lens cleaner. Do not use solvents.

Tip 4: Cover when not in use

All microscopes are sold with dust covers. Always keep your microscope covered when not in use even if the microscope is stored in a cabinet. Eye tubes also need to be kept free of dust so do not store a microscope without the eyepieces. If the microscope eyepieces must be removed, cover the tubes with caps or a plastic bag with a rubber band around the eye tube.

Tip 5: Look after the bulb

After using the microscope, turn off the illuminator and wait for it to cool for several minutes before putting it away. By allowing the bulb to cool you will extend its life. When turning the microscope on and off, use the switch not the power point. Do not switch the microscope on while using full light intensity. Never touch the bulb with your fingers as the body oils can burn into the bulb and reduce its life. Use a tissue. Keep a store of replacement bulbs and always use the correct bulb.

Tip 6: Store in a clean, dry place

Make sure you do not store your microscope in an area that has corrosive chemical fumes that can destroy lenses or metal parts or beside solutions that may leak. Salt air and pervasive damp can also cause damage over time. Make sure your cabinet is ventilated.

Tip 7: Only use special lens paper or wipes for cleaning the lenses

Microscope lenses can easily be scratched and should be treated with great care. Use an aspirator to remove dust. Sticky residue can be removed with lens paper moistened with distilled water or lens cleaning solution and rubbed gently using a circular motion. Never use sharp instruments or anything abrasive on the microscope lenses.

Tip 8: Keep your User's Manual and wrenches in a safe place

Each microscope should come with a user's manual and specialist wrenches as required. Always consult the User's Manual before making any adjustments to your microscope and use the wrenches provided. Never over-tighten or use force when performing any maintenance on your microscope, or use inappropriate tools. This can damage the parts.

Tip 9: Perform an annual maintenance check

On an annual basis moving parts on the microscope should be cleaned and lubricated. Clean grease and dirt from sliding surfaces using a clean cloth. Apply a very thin layer of lithium-based grease to the sliding surfaces. Do not grease the teeth of the rack and pinion gears. Inspect the power cords and plugs for safety and stock up on a supply of replacement bulbs.

Tip 10: Have your microscope serviced professionally

A rule of thumb for frequency of servicing is every 200 hours of use or every 3 years, whichever comes first.

Other apparatus which are essential in laboratory:-

Balance

Used for measuring mass

Beaker

Used to hold, mix, and heat liquids.

Beaker Tongs

Used to pick up beakers.

Bunsen Burner

Frequently used as a heat source in the absence of flammable materials.

Buret

Used for dispensing an accurate volume of a liquid

Clay Triangle

Used to support a crucible during heating.

Crucible

Used for holding chemicals during heating to very high temperatures.

Funnel

Used to transfer liquids or fine-grained materials into containers with small openings. Also used for filtration.

Graduated Cylinder

Used to measure a precise volume of a liquid.

Mortar and Pestle

Used to crush and grind materials.

Ring Clamp

Used with a ring stand to hold glassware, such as a beaker.

   2   Topic three: Cell strucrure

  CELL STRUCTURE

Cell is defined as basic unit of life. Living organisms live because they have millions of cell within their body for metabolism and  other activities. Cells are very small in way that they can not seen by naked eyes. The cell has three main parts which found to plant cell and animal cells but they perform the same functions , those parts are cell membrane , cytoplasm and nucleus.     

 Structure of plant cell.

Animal cell structure:  

Properties of cell

1.      Cells are highly complex and organized

2.      Cells are very small in size such that can not seen by naked eyes

3.      Cells acquire and utilize ernegy for their metabolism

4.      Cells engaged in mechanical activities.

5.      All are able to respond to the stimulus.

6.      Most cells carry out chemical reactions

7.      Most of cell undergo replication to reproduce copylight new ones

8.      Most of them are capable of self regulations

9.      They possess a genetics program and the means to use it.

10.  All cell possess cell membranes, nucleus and cytoplasm

11.  Are very essential for life of living organisms.

                 Types of cell

They are two types of cell

v  Prokaryotic cell (. single cell or unicellular )

v  Eukaryotic cell (mult cellular )

Prokaryotic cell ; are small cell and simple cell which contains a single cell and lack nucleus membrane hence organelles are suspended freely in cytoplasm . example of prokaryotic cell is bacteria cell.

 Structure of prokaryotic cell.

Eukaryotic cells are cell which are very complex and larger than prokaryotic cell it contains well developed nuclear membranes where organelles are enclosed in . are found in multi cellular organisms such as human being .

  Structure of eukaryotic cell.

    Similarities and Diferences between plant and animal Cells  Similarities between animal cell and plants cell.

• Ø         Both animal and plant cell have cell membrane
• Ø              Both animal cell and plants cell possess cytoplasm where organelles are suspended freely in.
• Ø    Both animal cell and plant cell contains mitochondria where respiration occur.
• Ø    Both of them possess endoplasmic reticulum.
• Ø    Both animal and plant cell have peroxisomes.
• Ø    Both animal and plant cell have possess nucleus
• Ø    Both animal and plant cell contains the same organelles
• Ø    Both animal and plant cell are eukaryotic.
• Ø    Both of them possess Golgi apparatus.

 Differences  between animal and plant cell

ü  Plant cell have cell wall but animal lack cell wall

ü  Plant cell have chloroplast but animal cell lack chloroplast

ü  Plant cell have nuclear membranes while animal cell lack nuclear membranes.

ü  Plant cell have plasmodesmata but animal cell lack plasmodesmata

ü  Store energy in form of starch for plant cell while store energy in form of carbohydrate and glycogen.

ü  Plant cell have definite shape but animal cell lack irregular shape.

ü  Plant cell have large and permanent vacuole while animal cell have small and temporary vacuole.

    comparisons Between Plants and Animals

Plants Most possess chlorophyll which gives them their green colour. Chlorophyll is very useful in the process of photosynthesis while Animal They lack chlorophyll pigment hence feed on already manufactured food materials.

Plants Their cells have cellulose cell walls while animals Their cells lack cellulose cell walls

Plants ; They respond slowly to changes in their environment while animals They respond quickly to changes in the environment.

Plants are immobile while animals Most animals move about in search of food, shelter and mates.

Plants ; They lack specialized excretory organs while animal Have complex excretory organs

Characteristics of the cell include the following:

Cells are small microscopic structures which cannot be seen by our naked eyes.

Cells are capable of dividing by mitotic process or meiotic process.

Cells contain structures called organelles.

The cell theory

A cell is a basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.

New cells only come from pre-existing ones.

Cells contain structures called organelles.

The cell theories were proposed jointly by two scientists namely Schleiden, a Belgian botanist, in 1838 and Schwann, German Zoologist, in 1839

Difference Between Various Types of Cells

Differentiate various types of cells

PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Prokaryotic cells are cells with no membrane-bound nucleus. The DNA lies free in the cytoplasm in a region known as nucleoid. They have no true nuclei. Examples of prokaryotic organisms are bacteria.

Eukaryotic cells are cells whose nuclei are bounded by nuclear membrane. They are surrounded by two nuclear membranes called nuclear envelope. Examples of eukaryotic organisms are protoctists, fungi, plants and animal cells.

Differences between cell wall and cell membrane

Cell wall Cell membrane It is a non–living structure It is a living structure It is made up of cellulose It is made up of lipoprotein It is freely permeable It is selectively permeable

                   

Difference prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells between

Eukaryotic cells	Prokaryotic cell
They have nuclear membrane	Lack nuclear membrane
Organelles are surrounded by envelopes.	Organelles are not surrounded by envelopes.
Have no nucleus	Have nucleus

                        

                         Topic three

Concept of safety in our environment

 Safety is the conditions being protected from danger , risks or injury. Or state being safe in a certain environment.

Environment: is the surrounding in which living organisms are live. Or is the sum total of all surrounding of a living organisms include natural forces and other things which provide conditions for growth. Or environment can be defined as an air, water and land in or on which living things lives.

v   FIRST AID ; is the first treatment given to injured person before taken to the hospital .

or first aid is the simple medical treatment given to a victim soon as possible before taken to the hospital for further more treatments.

Or is the assistance given to a victim soon after injury before taken to the hospital.

 IMPORTANCES OF FIRST AID

First aid has the following importance in our life

Ø  It enables you to assist persons who become injured in the event of an accident or emergency situation until help arrives

Ø        If an accident happens in the workplace, in your home or in a public space, being a helpless witness to an emergency situation can potentially worsen the situations.

Ø  First aid help to ensure that the right method or produces of administering medical assistance are provided to a victim.

Ø  The knowledge of first aid help victim themselves.

Ø  It afford people with the ability to provide help during in emergency situations specially person who drink or eat (ingest) poison substance or hazardous substance.

  FIST AID KIT

first aid kit is the small box which contains first aid instruments used to given medical treatment.

 First aid kit or instruments

The following are instruments present in first aid kit

1.      Bandages

2.      Iodine tincture

3.      Pair of scissors

4.      Razor bladder

5.      Water

6.      Soap

7.      Splits

8.      Safety pins

9.      Cotton ,etc.

uses of each instrument

«  Bandages it is used to cover wounds

«  Iodine tincture

1. Radiation Exposure

Potassium iodine has been used to help individuals exposed to radiation by reducing the harmful accumulation of radioactive substances in the thyroid. However, It has been said that nascent Iodine may be 4-7 times more effective than potassium iodide and is much safer to use.

2. General Use as a Sterilizing Agent

Almost all sterilization products for the body have iodine. It is a wonderful wound cleaner, and has even been used to purify water in tablet or liquid form.

3. Preventing Goiter

Irritation of the throat area and thyroid gland is known as a “goiter”. To prevent this condition, it is suggested to take the daily recommended amounts of a nascent iodine supplement to boost overall thyroid health.

4. Boosting Metabolism

Due to improper thyroid function, metabolism of the body may slow down. Supplementing with nascent iodine may help ensure the smooth functioning of the thyroid gland, which in turn helps regulate the metabolism. It can also aid the body in keeping warmth, steadying the heart rate, maintaining a health body weight, and promoting overall digestive health. Here are a few more tips to boosting metabolism.

5. Harmful Organisms

A nascent iodine solution can be used to assist the body in fighting off harmful organisms. Using an iodine tonic as a throat gargle is also helpful for a cough. Iodine also acts as an expectorant of mucous from the common cold and other respiratory ailments.

6. Breast Health

Much research is currently being conducted on the role of iodine in breast health and overall shape and function. Similarly, iodine is a key mineral in mother’s milk, and is passed on to children for their proper growth and development. However, most nursing mothers are extremely deficient in Iodine.

7. Ovarian Health

Again, much research confirms the link between a lack of iodine and ovarian concerns, such as cysts, and reproductive ability.

8. Neurological Health

Children can suffer from mental illness and disabilities due to a lack of iodine. It is important that mothers supplement with this micronutrient as a preventative measure. I recommend using only a safe nascent iodine.

9. Vaginitis

Iodine douches have been used to reduce the vaginal irritation, itching, and discharge associated with chronic yeast imbalances.

ROLE OF FIRST AIDERS

1. First aiders are to:

• provide emergency treatment of injuries or illness within their level of competency

• arrange the prompt and appropriate referral of injured persons to further medical assistance as

required.

2. First aiders will attend first aid refresher training every three years within three months of the expiry date of their certification.

3. First aiders are encouraged to attend Resuscitation (CPR) refresher training session in years when their Certificate refresher training is not undertaken.

4. When renewal of certification falls due, designated first aiders may relinquish their position if desired.

5. First Aiders must familiarize themselves with:

• First aid infection prevention

• First aid management of blood spills

• Hazardous exposure to body fluids by first aiders

6. First aiders are strongly encouraged to undergo Hepatitis B immunization and have post-vaccination

serology to confirm immunity.

7. The University will indemnify first aiders who work within their level of training against any loss or

damages arising from any legal action taken against them in carrying out their designated function.

8. First aiders will:

• monitor the contents of first aid kits in their area at least every three (3) months and report

deficiencies to the HWS Unit

• inform themselves where the nearest defibrillator is located and how to contact Security

• complete an Accident and Hazard Report or First Aid Treatment Form when involved in first aid

incidents

• allow their name and work contact information to be publicized within the University as a contactable first aider in emergency situations

• advise the HWS Unit of their relocation or resignation.

9. All staff and students must comply with the instructions given by emergency response personnel such as emergency wardens and first aiders. First aiders may occasionally encounter reluctance or uncertainty on the part of an injured person or a person exposed to a hazardous situation to follow the directions of the first aider. This is more likely to occur if the person requiring first aid is distressed or in pain. If such a situation arises then the attending first aider will have to evaluate the risks to the injured/exposed person and the risks to others if appropriate first aid treatment is not administered.

10. In rare circumstances, it may be necessary for first aiders to persuade injured persons to accept first aid. If first aid is refused, a first aider must respect this and document this fact. If first aid is refused where there is risk of serious injury or death involved or there is a potential danger to others then first aiders must inform Security if the first aider believes an ambulance required, the ambulance should be called.

11. First aider should only approach and /or move a person if it is safe to do so in the first instance i.e. fumes, gases, live cables are not present.

12. A first aider may apply a minimal level of physical exertion in order to move an injured person to reduce  risk of further injury if the person is unable to communicate and there is a risk of death or serious injury  to the injured person or to others. Physical exertion should not be used where the first aider themselves

«  Splits used to wash wounds

«  Razor blades used for cutting bandages

«  Scissors also used for cutting bandages and other sheets in first aid kit.

SAFETY AT HOME AND SCHOOLS

Home safety refers to the awareness and education of risks and potential dangers in and around a home which may cause bodily harm, injury, or even death to those residing in and around the physical structure of a home. It includes mitigating or preventing the unwanted dangers through testing, research and accepted standards of applications and practices.

Most common risks    

Molds [1] are microscopic organisms that thrive in damp environments. They can be found on tiles and fabric, in bathrooms and kitchens, nearly any damp, warm place. Molds are usually not a problem indoors, unless mold spores land on a wet or damp spot and begin growing. Allergic reactions to molds are common. Allergic responses include high fever-type symptoms, such as sneezing, runny nose, and red eyes.

Home safety practices          

Slip and trip- falling accidents at home are very common and can cause serious and life-threatening injuries, so prevention of slip and trip accidents is essential in the good design of living quarters. The objective is especially important for the elderly and disabled, who may be of restricted movement and more susceptible to hazards. It includes of adequate supports such as handrails and balustrades as well as ensuring walking surfaces are of high friction and thus slip resistant. Lighting is also vital for being bright enough to enable the user to see obstacles when walking into a room, for example. Users may also be provided with a walking stick or crutches to aid walking and personal support. Fall prevention is an active form of protection for users.

Radon testing and mitigation – The two types of radon gas testing devices are, passive and active. A person can set up a kit in their home or hire a professional to perform the test. If the test result comes back with high concentrations of radon, there are ways to reduce radon gas and bring it to acceptable levels. There are proven methods to reduce radon in a home or building.[2] One method uses a vent pipe system and fan, which pulls radon from beneath the house and vents it to the outside. This system, known as a soil suction radon reduction system, involves minor changes to your home.

Carbon monoxide detectors – Carbon monoxide (CO) detectors located in key areas inside the home is a preventative measure against CO poisoning. The gas is created during incomplete combustion in central heating boilers as well as in open fires for example. Chimneys to such devices can become blocked, and so the gas can enter living spaces. Only very low levels are toxic and since the gas is odorless, is a serious hazard. For multi-level homes, it is recommended having a minimum of one carbon monoxide detector per floor. For added protection, put a CO detector in each room and a utility/furnace room.

Toxic mold - Preventative steps include drying water damage and moisture control in the home. Inhaling or touching mold or mold spores may cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

Family safety plans – Family safety plans are an essential tool in fire safety because the plan helps family members to identify a fire escape plan. A safety plan includes knowing two ways out of every room, a safe place for members to meet outside of a burning home, and essential emergency telephone numbers. It is important to practice fire escape plans.

Sprinklers – Fire sprinklers offer a layer of protection because the sprinkler can respond to fire while it is still small. Fire sprinklers [3] respond only the sprinkler closest to the heat source. Smoke alone will not set a fire sprinkler to discharge.

Fire extinguishers – There are five different classes of fires; A, B, C, D, and K. Class A consists of burning paper, wood, cloth or other combustible solids. Class B consists of liquids and gasses such as propane. Class C fires consist of electrical fires. While class D fires (which is less common) consists of burning metal and class K fires (the most common) consists of kitchen type materials, i.e., grease and oil.

Fire extinguishers use a variety of substances to put out fires; dry powder, dry chemical, water, halogenated, carbon and foam. Since different substances burn differently, fire extinguishers are labeled (and often color-coded) according to the type or class of fire they can extinguish. It is, therefore, necessary to choose the correct fire extinguisher for home use.

Fire alarms– Fire alarms monitors the environmental changes associated with combustion. Once the alarm has been triggered by fire or smoke, a loud sound emanates to warn of danger and sends a message to a central monitoring center, which then notifies the local fire department.

Smoke alarms – Smoke alarms also known as smoke detectors, generally sound an audible and visual alarm. Smoke alarms are usually housed in a disk-shaped plastic enclosure about 6 inches in diameter and 1 inch thick and are often powered by a disposable battery.

Heat detectors – Heat detectors are a device that responds to changes in ambient temperature. Heat detectors are not meant to replace smoke detectors. They are often placed in rooms where standard smoke detectors are not suitable, such as laundry rooms, garages, and attics.

Home Fire Escape Plans- Create a fire escape plan with two exits from every room, and conduct practice drills with the entire family at least once every six months. When creating the fire escape plan, draw a layout that shows each room and potential escape route in the home. Explain the escape plan to children and ensure that they recognize the sound of the fire alarm and know to check the door for heat and how to stay low to the ground.[4]

Poison - Always have the number of your local Poison Control Center available and familiarize yourself with what to do in case of poisoning.[5] Know which plants are poisonous and remove them from your home. Keep all medications, including over-the-counter medications secured and out of the reach of children. DO NOT make a person throw up unless told to do so by poison control or a health care professional.

     Safety at school

Safety at school refer to a condition of protecting our schools free from danger , risks or injuries.

Causes of dangerous at schools

The list of the most dangerous products in schools is ranked by average number of non-sports related injuries in schools per year to help you understand what potentially dangerous products  your child might meet on a daily basis. Below you'll find the list from 2011.

 Scissors, Luggage, Chemicals (Incl. Paint, Cleaning and Fertilizer), Footwear, Non-Power Tools, Bicycles, Power Tools,  Fences,  Knives

6 Rules for School Safety

 Learn the school's emergency procedures. Emergency plans and phone numbers are usually included in school handbooks and posted in classrooms. Taking a few extra minutes to familiarize yourself and your child with emergency information can give him the confidence he needs to act quickly in emergency situations. 

Know travel routes to and from the school. Make sure you and your child know both primary and alternate routes. In an emergency, roads can be blocked and it's important to have a backup plan.

Know and follow school security and safety measures. These might include signing in when visiting the school, being escorted when walking through the building, or wearing a visitor pass. Following these procedures also sets a great example for your kids.

Talk with your child about safety. Be specific. Talk about instinct and paying attention to funny feelings of fear. Explain what to do if she doesn't feel safe (find a teacher, call 911, etc.). Make sure she knows how to contact you or a trusted neighbor who is likely to be at home.

Inform school staff about health and emotional concerns. Whether your child has a food allergy, a physical disability, or has been subject to bullying, make sure to keep your child's teachers and principal in the loop.

Get involved. Talk with the principal about what you can do to increase school safety, such as organizing parents to form a neighborhood watch before and after school. Sometimes parent groups are highly successful in making improvements in traffic safety during drop off

 Importance’s of protecting schools and home environment from dangerous conditions.;

        i.                  . Safety programs create productive work environments

      ii.            .absenteeism drops when effective safety programs are introduced

    iii.            Work premises are kept to higher standards

    iv.            A safe work environment produces happier employees

      v.            Employee insurance claims decrease in safe work environments

    vi.            A company’s most valuable asset is protected — its people

  vii.            Safety programs enable a company to win and retain business customers

viii.            Safety programs create an environment where safety improvements are considered, encouraged and implemented

    ix.            Safe work environments enhance the brand value and goodwill for a company

  TOPIC FOUR

WASTE AND WASTE DISPOSAL.

Wastes are those unwanted materials or substances within the environment. or

 Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use, or it is worthless, defective and of no use. 

Examples include municipal solid waste (household trash/refuse), hazardous waste, wastewater (such as sewage, which contains bodily wastes (feces and urine) and surface runoff), radioactive waste, and others.

Costs caused by wastes in our life.

Environmental costs;

Waste not the Waste. Sign in Tamil Nadu, India

Inappropriately managed waste can attract rodents and insects, which can harbor gastrointestinal parasites, yellow fever, worms, the plague and other conditions for humans, and exposure to hazardous wastes, particularly when they are burned, can cause various other diseases including cancers. Toxic waste materials can contaminate surface water, groundwater, soil, and air which causes more problems for humans, other species, and ecosystems.[7] Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green house gas (GHG) emissions, notably methane, which are contributing significantly to global warming.[5]

Social costs

Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental burdens cited above are more often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities, women, and residents of developing nations. NIMBY (not in my back yard) is the opposition of residents to a proposal for a new development because it is close to them.[8] However, the need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasing worldwide. There is now a growing market in the transboundary movement of waste, and although most waste that flows between countries goes between developed nations, a significant amount of waste is moved from developed to developing nations.[9]

Economic costs

The economic costs of managing waste are high, and are often paid for by municipal governments;[10] money can often be saved with more efficiently designed collection routes, modifying vehicles, and with public education. Environmental policies such as pay as you throw can reduce the cost of management and reduce waste quantities. Waste recovery (that is, recycling, reuse) can curb economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and often cuts transportation costs. "Economic assessment of municipal waste management systems – case studies using a combination of life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life-cycle costing (LCC)".[11] The location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often reduces property values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste sector consists mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and other materials and then trade them for a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce waste in a particular system, but other negative economic effects come with the disease, poverty, exploitation, and abuse of its workers.[12]

TYPES OF WASTES

They are most three types of waste which are;

        i.            Sold waste

      ii.            Liquid waste

    iii.            Gaseous wastes

  

1. Sold wastes

Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchen refuse, paper, appliances, paint cans, batteries, etc., produced in a society, which do not generally carry any value to the first user(s).  Example. of solid west

Figure: solid polution

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTES

Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchen refuse,   paper, appliances, paint cans, batteries, etc., produced in a society, which    do not generally carry any value to the first user(s). Solid wastes, thus, encompass both a heterogeneous mass of wastes from the urban community as well as a more homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial and mineral wastes. While wastes have little or no value in one setting or to the one who wants to dispose them, the discharged wastes may gain significant value in another setting. Knowledge of the sources and types of solid wastes as well as the information on composition and the rate at which wastes are generated/ disposed is, therefore, essential for the design and operation of the functional elements associated with the management of solid wastes.

1 Source-based classification

 (i)                   Residential: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments, etc., and consists of leftover food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.

 (ii)          Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals, ashes, etc., generated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.

(iii)        Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated from educational, administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons, etc.

(iv)        Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant

residual sludge, etc., generated from various municipal activities like construction and demolition, street cleaning, landscaping, etc.

 (v)Industrial: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction wastes, hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities.

 (vi)   Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural remains, litter, etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.

(vii)       Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots, playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.

 2.     Type-based classification

Classification of wastes based on types, i.e., physical, chemical, and biological characteristic of wastes, is as follows.

 (i)             Garbage: This refers to animal and vegetable wastes resulting from the

handling, sale,  storage, preparation, cooking  and  serving  of food. Garbage comprising these  wastes contains putrescible (rotting) organic matter, which produces an obnoxious odour and attracts rats and other vermin. It, therefore, requires special attention in storage, handling and disposal.

 (ii) Ashes and residues: These are substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal, charcoal, coke and other combustible materials for cooking and heating in houses, institutions and small industrial establishments. When produced in large quantities, as in power-generation plants and factories, these are classified as industrial wastes. Ashes consist of fine powdery residue, cinders and clinker often mixed with small pieces of metal and glass. Since ashes and residues are almost entirely inorganic, they are valuable in landfills. (iii) Combustible and non-combustible wastes: These consist of wastes generated from households, institutions, commercial activities, etc., excluding food wastes and other highly putrescible material. Typically, while combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden trimmings, etc., non-combustible material consists of such items as glass, crockery, tin and aluminum cans, ferrous and non-ferrous material and dirt.

(iv) Bulky wastes: These include large household appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tires, wood, trees and branches. Since these household wastes cannot be accommodated in normal storage containers, they require a special collection mechanism.

(v)          Street wastes: These refer to wastes that are collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks and vacant plots, and include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt, leaves and other vegetable matter. Littering in public places is indeed a widespread and acute problem in many countries including India, and a solid waste management system must address this menace appropriately.

(vi)        Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes: Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc., generated from various household and industrial activities. Because of the action of micro-organisms, these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds. Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc.

(vii) Dead animals: With regard to municipal wastes, dead animals are those that die naturally or are accidentally killed on the road. Note that this category does not include carcasses and animal parts from slaughter-houses, which are regarded as industrial wastes. Dead animals are divided into two groups - large and small. Among the large animals are horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, etc., and among the small ones are dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, etc. The reason for this differentiation is that large animals require special equipment for lifting and handling when they are removed. If not collected promptly, dead animals pose a threat to public health since they attract flies and other vermin as they decay. Their presence in public places is particularly offensive from the aesthetic point of view as well.

(viii) Abandoned vehicles: This category includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that are abandoned on streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles have significant scrap value for their metal, and their value to collectors is highly variable.

(ix)        Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated as a result of construction, refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other structures. They consist mainly of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials, heating systems and electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste stream.

(x) Farm Wastes: These wastes result from diverse agricultural activities such as planting, harvesting, production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter and the operation of feedlots. In many areas, the disposal of animal waste has become a critical problem, especially from feedlots, poultry farms and dairies

(xi) Hazardous wastes: Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of industrial,

institutional or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to human beings and the environment. This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or radioactive characteristics like ignitability, corrosively, reactivity and toxicity. Note that in some cases, the active agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous wastes. These are, nevertheless, classified as solid wastes as they are confined in solid containers. Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers of solvents, paints and pesticides, which are frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become part of the urban waste stream. Certain hazardous wastes may cause explosions in incinerators and fires at landfill sites. Others such as pathological wastes from hospitals and radioactive wastes also        require        special        handling.     Effective management practices should ensure that hazardous wastes  are stored, collected, transported and disposed of separately, preferably after suitable treatment to render them harmless.     

(xii)  Sewage wastes: The solid by-products of sewage treatment are classified as sewage wastes. They are mostly organic and derived from the treatment of organic sludge separated from both raw and treated sewages. The inorganic fraction of raw sewage such as grit and eggshells is separated at the preliminary stage of treatment, as it may entrain putrescible organic matter with pathogens and must be buried without delay. The bulk of treated, dewatered sludge is useful as a soil conditioner but is invariably uneconomical. Solid sludge, therefore, enters the stream of municipal wastes, unless special arrangements are made for its disposal.

 2 Liquid  waste can be defined as such Liquids as wastewater, fats, oils or grease (FOG), used oil, liquids, solids, gases, or sludge’s and hazardous household liquids. These liquids that are hazardous or potentially harmful to human health or the environment. They can also be discarded commercial products classified as “Liquid Industrial Waste” such as cleaning fluids or pesticides, or the by-products of manufacturing processes.  There are general regulatory requirements relating to waste, additional regulations apply to generating, storing, transporting, treating and disposing of hazardous and liquid wastes.

2 LIQUID WASTE

Introduction

You were introduced to the main types of liquid waste in Study Session 1. This study session is the first of three that builds on that introduction and describes liquid wastes in more detail. We begin with a closer look at the sources and characteristics of liquid wastes. Study Session 5 focuses on the different types of latrine available for urban areas in Ethiopia. In Study Session 6 you will learn about the management and treatment of liquid wastes.

Figure: liquid polution

The type and composition of liquid waste depends on the source. In urban areas, the main sources are households, commercial establishments and industries. We need accurate information on the characteristics of liquid wastes in order to establish proper waste management processes to deal with them. In this study session you will learn about the main sources of liquid wastes and about different ways of characterizing them. We also briefly describe some of the laboratory tests used to analyses liquid waste

 Identify the main sources of liquid wastes and outline the differences between them. (SAQ  Describe the characteristics of liquid wastes and give examples of tests used in their analysis. (SAQs 4.2 and 4.3)

  Identify the main sources of industrial liquid waste in Ethiopia and outline the characteristics of the wastewater they produce.

ü  Sources of liquid waste

Liquid waste was defined in Study Session 1 as any waste in liquid form. The composition of liquid waste, also known as wastewater, is highly varied and depends principally on its source. In towns and cities, the three main sources are residential, commercial and industrial areas.

Ø   Liquid wastes from residential areas

List three liquid wastes from your daily life.

I’m sure you thought of several. Examples include the wastewaters from washing your face in the morning, from washing clothes, from taking a shower and from washing dishes. You may also have mentioned human bodily waste, which is also classified as liquid waste.

In urban areas, the liquid wastes from residential areas are often referred to as domestic wastewaters. These wastewaters come from our day-to-day living and include those from food preparation, washing, bathing and toilet usage. As you read in Study Session 1, different terms are used to describe wastewater from these various domestic sources.

difference between Blackwater, greywater and silage

Blackwater is wastewater that contains human excreta (faeces and/or urine). Greywater is wastewater from activities such as washing and food preparation and does not contain excreta. Silage is another name for greywater.

Blackwater and greywater are produced from domestic dwellings with access to a piped water supply and also from business premises and the various institutions, such as schools and health centers, found in residential areas. The term sewage is used to describe a combination of all these types of liquid waste, frequently also with surface run-off.

In many towns and cities in the world, sewage is collected in underground sewers that carry the effluents to a sewage treatment works (Figure 4.1). (Effluent is another term for wastewater that flows out from a source.) At the treatment works, the sewage is cleaned by various physical and biological processes before being discharged into a river or lake. It may be possible to reuse the treated water, typically for irrigation.

The quantity and type of liquid waste generated in a residential area depends on several factors, such as population size, standard of living, rate of water consumption, habits of the people and the climate. It also depends on the number and type of institutions such as schools and health centers in the area.

Ø  Liquid wastes from commercial areas

The wastewaters from commercial areas (Figure 4.2) – comprising business establishments, shops, open market places, restaurants and cafes – will mostly resemble those from households. This is because only human-related activities are undertaken in such areas, as opposed to other activities such as industrial production. Effluent from restaurants and cafes may contain high levels of oil from cooking processes but this can be overcome by using a grease trap (Figure 4.3) in their outlet pipes. A grease trap consists of a small tank or chamber which slows the speed of effluent flow. In the grease trap, fats, oils and grease float to the top of the wastewater and form a layer of scum that is contained within the tank. This can then be removed and disposed of as solid waste.

Characteristics of liquid wastes

Liquid wastes can be described according to their physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.

«  Physical characteristics of liquid wastes

1.      Solids

Wastewaters may contain particles of solid material carried along in the flow. These may be settle able solids or suspended solids. Settle able solids sink to the bottom (settle out) when the speed of flow is reduced, for example, when the wastewater is stored in a tank. Suspended solids are small particles that remain in suspension in the water; they do not dissolve in the wastewater but are carried along in it. The solids content can be measured by filtering out and weighing the solids in a given volume of water. The laboratory procedure is to weigh a filter paper, pour a measured volume of water through the paper, then dry it and weigh again. The difference in mass equals the mass of solids which can be expressed in terms of milligrams of solid matter per litre of water, in units of mg l-1.

2. Temperature

Wastewaters are generally warmer than the ambient temperature. This is because warm or hot water may be included in the waste stream from domestic activities such as showering or from industrial processing. The temperature is given in degrees Celsius (oC).

3.  Odour

Wastewaters can have an odour, usually due to generation of gases as a result of biodegradation in the wastewater. Biodegradation is the breaking down (decomposition) of organic substances by bacteria and other micro-organisms. Organic matter is any substance that is derived from living organisms, such as human and animal wastes, food waste, paper and agricultural wastes. Detecting odour tends to be a subjective process but it is possible to measure it in terms of odour units.

«  Chemical characteristics of liquid wastes

1. Organic matter;

Wastewaters from many different sources contain organic matter, which is a frequent cause of pollution in surface waters. If organic matter is released into a river or lake, bacteria and other micro-organisms that are naturally present in fresh water will degrade the waste and in the process they use dissolved oxygen from the water. If there is a lot of organic matter, then most or all of the dissolved oxygen may be used up, thus depriving other life forms in the water of this essential element. The oxygen taken up in degrading the organic matter is referred to as its oxygen demand. This can be determined by a measure called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD tests are carried out in a laboratory and involve measuring the amount of oxygen used, usually over a period of five days, as the organic matter in the wastewater breaks down. The result is the amount of oxygen used in degrading the organic matter in the wastewater, which is expressed in milligrams per litre (mg l-1).

There is also a chemical method of determining the quantity of organic matter called the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test. This test is much quicker than the BOD test, taking only about two hours to carry out. It depends on chemical oxidation of the organic matter rather than biological degradation. It involves boiling a sample of wastewater with a mixture of concentrated acids and a measured quantity of oxidizing agent to oxidase the organic matter. The amount of oxidizing agent remaining at the end of the test is measured. The amount that has been used up is equivalent to the amount of organic matter in the sample. The result is again expressed in mg l-1. COD tends to give higher results than BOD because the chemical process can oxidase more material than the biological process.

 2 Inorganic material;

Wastewater also contains inorganic chemicals. This means any substance that has not come from animals or plants, so it includes a wide range of different chemicals as well as inert solids like sand and silt. Many inorganic chemicals are dissolved in the water and although some are harmless, others are pollutants that can damage aquatic life such as fish and other organisms that live in water. One example is ammonia (NH3) which is present in human and animal excreta. Like organic matter, ammonia is broken down in the environment by natural processes. If ammonia is released into a river it is converted by the action of bacteria to nitrate (NO3), which is less harmful. This natural conversion of ammonia to nitrate requires oxygen and is limited if there are excessive quantities of ammonia. Other examples of inorganic chemicals in wastewaters are chloride (from salt), phosphates (from chemical fertilisers and from human and animal wastes), and metal compounds (from mining operations or metal-plating plants).

«   Biological characteristics of liquid wastes

Liquid wastes contain many different types of bacteria and other micro-organisms originating from human wastes and other sources. Many of these bacteria are beneficial and are responsible for the biodegradation of organic components of the wastes; others may be pathogenic. The presence of bacteria in wastewater is normal and expected, but it becomes a problem if the waste is not kept separate from people or if it contaminates clean water or food. The safe management and disposal of any waste containing human excreta is the most critical aspect of sanitation and hygiene and is essential to prevent the spread of infectious disease.

The composition of industrial wastewater will vary depending on the type of industry, the raw materials used, and the processes undertaken. Three of the most important producers of industrial wastewater in Ethiopia are the food industry, the textile industry and tanneries

The food industry

Food production is a priority in Ethiopia and plays a major part in the economy, with factories producing bread, beverages, sugar and several other products. Many of the production processes require large volumes of water and so most of the factories are located near rivers or boreholes.

Canneries;

The volume of clean water required differs between canneries and the products they are preparing, but ensuring cleanliness is obviously essential. For tomato paste, a popular food product in Ethiopia, it takes about 220 liters of water to produce 10 kilograms of tomato paste. Canning factories that produce tomato paste, such as the Merit Processing Factory in Oromia, generate both solid and liquid waste. The quantity of solid tomato waste may be as much as 15-30% of the total quantity of product (Farris et al., 2002). The wastewater from a cannery will contain organic solids, primarily from washing raw materials such as tomatoes, cleaning equipment, spillage and from floor-washing.

Meat packaging;

Wastewaters are generated at animal yards, slaughterhouses and packing houses. The main sources are animal faeces, urine, blood and water that has been used for washing floors and surfaces. The pollutants in the wastewaters are organic and can decompose rapidly, generating unpleasant odours. If discharged to a water body, they will cause severe environmental pollution. The meat industry utilizes thousands of liters of water per day depending on the size of the facility and the number of animals processed.

What will be the effect of the organic waste from meat packaging if it is discharged into a river?

The organic waste will exert an oxygen demand as it is broken down by bacteria. This could deplete the oxygen available for other living organisms in the water such as fish.

Dairy industry

Wastewaters from dairies may come from receiving stations (where milk is delivered from individual farms), bottling plants, creameries, ice cream plants, cheese production units and dried milk production plants. The wastewater from spillage, cleaning and washing usually contains milk which has a very high polluting potential. The polluting potential is the potential of the wastewaters to cause pollution, i.e. damage to the condition, health, safety, or welfare of animals, humans, plants or properties

Textile industry

The raw materials for the textile industry are wool, cotton and synthetic fibers.  The processing of wool and cotton involves removing natural impurities, such as dust, and imparting particular qualities relating to appearance, feel and durability. Water is used for washing at various stages, producing effluent that is likely to contain suspended solids and organic material from processing the fibers.  It may also contain dyes and other chemicals, depending on the specific processes used in the factory. The outputs from these processes are used to make clothing and other textile products (Figure 4.5).

Tanneries

Ethiopia has the largest livestock population of all countries in Africa (TAM Consult, 2008) and tanning of animal hides is an important economic activity. There are 26 major tanneries in Ethiopia (UNIDO, 2012) producing a range of products from sheep, goats and cows including partly processed hides and finished leather (Figure 4.6).

Tannery effluent is highly polluting and is often discharged directly to nearby rivers without adequate treatment. It contains toxic (poisonous) chemicals such as chromium, sulphides  and organic acids, as well as organic matter and solids. Chromium is a particular problem because it is an example of a heavy metal. Heavy metals are a group of toxic chemical pollutants that persist in the environment, i.e. they do not get broken down by natural processes. Tannery wastewaters are produced in large volumes and are considerably more polluting than wastewaters from most other industries. The treatment of tannery waste involves removing solids and organic matter from the effluent.

The composition of liquid waste depends on its source. The three main sources are residential, commercial, and industrial areas. Storm water  is also a source of liquid waste.

Liquid waste from domestic sources can be classified as Blackwater, which contains excreta, and greywater, which does not.

Liquid waste from commercial areas is broadly similar to wastewater from residential areas. Fats and oil from restaurants and cafes can be removed using a grease trap.

The characteristics of industrial wastewaters depend on the type of industry. Some industrial wastewaters are hazardous.

The characteristics of wastewaters can be described in physical, chemical and biological terms.

Physical characteristics include the amount of suspended solids, the temperature and odour. The amount of suspended solids is measured by filtering a known volume of wastewater and weighing the solids retained on the filter.

The quantity of organic matter in liquid waste is an important measure of its polluting potential. If discharged into a river or lake, organic matter exerts an oxygen demand which can reduce the availability of oxygen for fish and other aquatic organisms.

Organic matter is measured in terms of biochemical oxygen demand or chemical oxygen demand.

Three examples of industries in Ethiopia that produce liquid wastes are food, textiles and tanneries. They each produce polluting liquid wastes that should be treated before being discharged into the environment.

Gasese waste: Refers to the form of waste  which is produced by human activities from different working fiels which produce smokes especially. example. production industries, this includes industries like coal production industries. Example. consider the figure below.

Figure: gaseous pollution

Self-Assessment Questions

1.      Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these question

2.      Rewrite the paragraph below using terms from the list provided to fill the gaps. (Note that some of these terms have been defined in earlier study sessions.)

biochemical oxygen demand, biodegradation, Blackwater, chemical oxygen demand, effluent, greywater, hazardous

3  Rewrite the paragraph below using terms from the list provided to fill the gaps. (Note that some of these terms have been defined in earlier study sessions.

biochemical oxygen demand, biodegradation, Blackwater, chemical oxygen demand, effluent, greywater, hazardous, heavy metals, inorganic, liquid waste, oxygen demand, pathogenic, polluting potential, sewage, sewers, sullage, suspended solids, wastewater.

When we use water for any purpose and it becomes unclean after we used it, we refer to it as ……………… or ……………… In our homes we generate two types of ……………… The type from toilets which contains excreta is called ………………, while other wastewaters (e.g. from clothes washing) that are not contaminated by excreta are referred to as ……………… Another word for the latter type of wastewater is ……………… Domestic wastewater is sometimes referred to as ………………… In many towns and cities around the world domestic wastewater goes into underground pipes called ……………… that take the wastewater to treatment works.

The solids in wastewater that are carried along in flowing water are called ……………… Organic matter in water may cause odours due to ……………… It also creates ………………, which can be measured by its ……………… or ……………… If faecal matter is in the water, there may be ……………… micro-organisms present. ……………… chemicals in wastewaters are likely to include nitrates and phosphates. Industrial wastewaters may have significant ……………… for example, tannery waste frequently contains persistent ……………… pollutants that contain ………………

Answer

When we use water for any purpose and it becomes unclean after we used it, we refer to it as wastewater or effluent. In our homes we generate two types of liquid waste. The type from toilets which contains excreta is called Blackwater, while other wastewaters (e.g. from clothes washing) that are not contaminated by excreta are referred to as greywater. Another word for the latter type of wastewater is sullage. Domestic wastewater is sometimes referred to as sewage. In many towns and cities around the world domestic wastewater goes into underground pipes called sewers that take the wastewater to treatment works.

The solids in a wastewater that are carried along in flowing water are called suspended solids. Organic matter in water may cause odours due to biodegradation. It also creates oxygen demand, which can be measured by its biochemical oxygen demand or chemical oxygen demand. If faecal matter is in the water, there may be pathogenic micro-organisms present. Inorganic chemicals in wastewaters are likely to include nitrates and phosphates. Industrial wastewaters may have significant polluting potential, for example, tannery waste frequently contains persistent hazardous pollutants that contain heavy metals.

QN.

Suggest two ways in which wastewater from residential areas may differ from wastewater from

a. commercial areas

industrial areas.

Answer

Residential   wastewater will probably only contain domestic liquid wastewater but in commercial areas there will also be wastes from businesses such as shops, cafes and restaurants. This may increase the proportion of fats and oils in the effluent.

both residential and industrial wastewater will contain organic wastes but domestic waste is unlikely to include toxic chemicals, which will be found in many types of industrial waste.

SAQ 4.3 (tests Learning Outcome 4.3)

a. Workses is a laboratory technician. She is analyzing a sample of wastewater collected from a pipe that discharges effluent into a river. Name two tests Workses could perform to assess the physical characteristics of the effluent.

brass part of the analysis she also does a BOD test on the sample and gets an unusually high result. What does the high BOD tell her about the wastewater? What effect could it have on the river?

Answer

a. To assess the physical characteristics, Workses could perform a suspended solids test. She could also measure the temperature of the sample and assess the odour. (Note that if she was measuring temperature she would have to do this at the point of origin because the temperature could change within a short time.)

b. A high BOD test result would tell Workplaces that there was a lot of organic matter in the sample. If this was discharged into the river it would remove oxygen from the water, which would harm fish and other organisms living in the river.

Sample: Questions

Which of the following statements are false? In each case explain why it is incorrect.

A.Effluent from food processing factories is safe to discharge to rivers without treatment.

B. The manufacture of clothing material often uses coloured dyes that may be discharged in effluent from the factory.

C. Tannery waste is highly polluting because it contains large quantities of suspended solids.

D. Wastewater from slaughterhouses contains blood, animal excreta and washing water.

Answer

A is false. Effluent from food processing factories is not toxic but it will probably contain organic matter, which should be treated before the waste is discharged.

C is false. Tannery waste may contain suspended solids but the reason why it is highly polluting is because it contains toxic chemicals.

3.   Gaseous waste is a waste product in gas form resulting from various human activities, such as manufacturing, processing, material consumption or biological processes. Gaseous waste that is held in a closed container falls into the category of solid waste for disposal purposes.

Management of Gaseous Wastes:

The gaseous wastes are generated in to environment mainly due to anthropogenic activities. The gaseous wastes include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of Sulphur (Sox) etc. These gaseous wastes can cause serious environmental hazards. Therefore, it is highly essential to take appropriate steps for the proper management and control of gaseous wastes in the environment.

Some important control measures are described below:

(i) The gaseous pollutant like SO2, H2S, HC1, Cl2, NH3, etc. can be removed by absorption in (using appropriate liquid) wet scrubbers.

(ii) The use of smokeless chulhas, solar cookers and biogas can reduce the production of smoke.

(iii) The industries should use precipitators, scrubbers and filters to check production of particulate matter.

(iv) The emission of hydrocarbons from vehicles can be checked by the use of unleaded petrol.

(v) There should be large scale of plantation which will reduce CO2 level and increase O2 level of atmosphere.

(vi) There should be large chimneys in industries.

(vii) The automobile emission can be controlled by:

(a) Control of exhaust emission,

(b) Control of evaporation emission,

(c) Control of crank case emission,

(d) Using engine alternative to gasoline engine,

(e) Use of CNG instead of diesel.

(viii) Air cleaning devices like gravity settlers, cyclone separators, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators etc. should be used for the cleaning of air before their discharge into atmosphere.

(ix) Public awareness should be created regarding hazards of air pollutant accumulation in environment.

(x) Adequate legislation (Air act) should compel to control air pollution. Severe punishment should be specified.

waste disposal

Removing and destroying or storing damaged, used or other unwanted domestic, agricultural or industrial products and substances. Disposal includes burning, burial at landfill sites or at sea, and recycling.

Waste management is the process of treating solid wastes and offers variety of solutions for recycling items that don’t belong to trash. It is about how garbage can be used as a valuable resource. Waste management is something that each and every household and business owner in the world needs. Waste management disposes of the products and substances that you have use in a safe and efficient manner

      Methods Of waste disposal

v  . Preventing or reducing waste generation: Extensive use of new or unnecessary products is the root cause of unchecked waste formation. The rapid population growth makes it imperative to use secondhand products or judiciously use the existing ones because if not, there is a potential risk of people succumbing to the ill effects of toxic wastes. Disposing of the wastes will also assume formidable shape. A conscious decision should be made at the personal and professional level to judiciously curb the menacing growth of wastes.

v  . Recycling: Recycling serves to transform the wastes into products of their own genre through industrial processing. Paper, glass, aluminum, and plastics are commonly recycled. It is environmentally friendly to reuse the wastes instead of adding them to nature. However, processing technologies are pretty expensive.

v  Incineration: Incineration features combustion of wastes to transform them into

base components, with the generated heat being trapped for deriving energy. Assorted gases and inert ash are common by-products. Pollution is caused by varied degrees dependent on nature of waste combusted and incinerator design. Use of filters can check pollution. It is rather inexpensive to burn wastes and the waste volume is reduced by about 90%. The nutrient rich ash derived out of burning organic wastes can facilitate hydroponic solutions. Hazardous and toxic wastes can be easily be rid of by using this method. The energy extracted can be used for cooking, heating, and supplying power to turbines. However, strict vigilance and due diligence should be exercised to check the accidental leakage of micro level contaminants, such as dioxins from incinerator

v  . Composting: It involves decomposition of organic wastes by microbes by allowing the waste to stay accumulated in a pit for a long period of time. The nutrient rich compost can be used as plant manure. However, the process is slow and consumes a significant amount of land. Biological reprocessing tremendously improves the fertility of the soil.

v  Sanitary Landfill: This involves the dumping of wastes into a landfill. The base is prepared of a protective lining, which serves as a barrier between wastes and ground water, and prevents the separation of toxic chemicals into the water zone. Waste layers are subjected to compaction and subsequently coated with an earth layer. Soil that is non-porous is preferred to mitigate the vulnerability of accidental leakage of toxic chemicals. Landfills should be created in places with low groundwater level and far from sources of flooding. However, a sufficient number of skilled manpower is required to maintain sanitary landfills.

v   Disposal in ocean/sea: Wastes generally of radioactive nature are dumped in the oceans far from active human habitats. However, environmentalists are challenging this method, as such an action is believed to spell doom for aquatic life by depriving the ocean waters of its inherent nutrients.

       

v      Reuse; The amount of waste disposal can be reduced by carefully considering exactly what you are throwing away. Before automatically discarding items, think about whether it would be possible to wash and reuse them. Plastic tubs such as those that contained butter or ice cream can become effective storage containers for a range of small items such as nails or screws. Scrap paper that would otherwise be thrown away can be used for notes and lists that are required around the house. 

v  Animal Feed

Don’t overlook a pet’s capacity to be an effective waste disposal. Retain vegetable peel and food scraps to feed small animals such as hamsters and rabbits. Large meat bones will often be greatly received by the family dog. If you have livestock, use leftover food to feed your animals if it is appropriate to do so. Animals such as pigs are indiscriminate when it comes to their diet and will tend to eat whatever they are given. If you do not keep animals but live in a rural area, determine whether any of your neighbors keep animals and whether they could make use of food waste.

v  Firewood

A significant amount of waste disposal can be required when it comes to refurbishing a home or replacing furniture. Rather than discarding furniture, cut it up into more manageable pieces and use of as firewood. Even if you don’t make use of a wood burning stove, you are likely to find it easy to find others that do. In addition, it may even enable you to make a little extra money by offering it for sale. Burning items for heat or fuel would also be suitable for other items that do not contain any toxic materials.

The Importance Of Proper Waste Disposal

Whether you are simply cleaning out your home or investing in a major renovation project, proper waste disposal is important for both the environmental and public health. You should consider hiring a waste management company for the collection and disposal of this waste in the correct way. Waste should be sorted into recyclable, reusable and disposable materials to ensure that it ends up in the right place. You should always go for professional waste management so as to:

 1. Protect the Environment

You would not want to walk out of your house and into a yard full of used paper bags and all kinds of trash. Not only is it unpleasing to the eye but also some types of environmental contaminants do cause a lot of damage. For instance, motor oil that is not disposed of properly could end up in water streams and cause pollution in rivers and lakes. Fertilizers and cleaning supplies make water unsafe for drinking and disrupt the natural habitat in land and water of various plants and animals. Proper waste disposal ensures that nothing ends up in the environment in an uncontrolled way to cause pollution.

 2. Make Money

Did you know that you could make money from your garbage? Some bin rental Toronto companies will even pay you for your trash. This is because recycling has become a lucrative business since it utilizes already present materials. Manufacturers have come to appreciate recycling since they cut the cost of mining or purchasing raw materials when there is plenty of recyclables to be found. You can sell recyclable materials such as plastics, glass, wood and iron which will be remade into new items. Recycling also helps to reduce the amount of trash that ends up in the environment and protects it from pollution.

3. Stay Safe

Waste that is not properly disposed of can be hazardous to your safety. Sharp object such as glass and rusty metals could cause serious injuries and infections, especially for playing children that could put you in the hospital for a while. Pieces of plastic that are not disposed properly end up choking animals in the environment and killing them. Some kinds of environmental contaminants can also spread serious illness and disease if not disposed of in the right way. Proper waste management and disposal removes all these hazardous materials from the environment making it safer for both human beings and animals as well.

TOPIC 5

HEALTH  AND IMMUNITY

«                   Health

Previously health was defined merely as the absence of disease. But  it has become clear that health is an active process that depends on the supportive interaction of all the body's systems. Reflecting this concept, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Many groups, such as the American Public Health Association, Worksite Health Promotion, and the National Wellness Association, have expanded the concept of health further to encompass wellness: the spiritual, social, mental, physical, and occupational needs for one to live life to the fullest.

The definition of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the biomedical perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by disease. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress".[11] Then, in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher: linking health to well-being, in terms of "physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".[12] Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad, and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal and most discussions of health returned to the practicality of the biomedical model.[13]

Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". 1984 WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities".[14] Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults. Mental, intellectual, emotional, and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and independent living.

Since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States’ approach to improving population health.[15] In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued,[16] featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.[17]

Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy" is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals, including their background, lifestyle, and economic, social conditions, and spirituality; these are referred to as "determinants of health." Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.

In the first decade of the 21th century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self-assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health .  It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of multiple chronic diseases, or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health, away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases

Immunity

Immunity is a condition of being able to resist a particular disease especially through preventing development of pathogenic microorganism or by counteracting the effects of its products. It is the capability of the body to resist harmful microorganisms or viruses from entering it. The healthy immune process is capable to recognize invading viruses, bacteria and also produce antibodies to destroy or disable them. It is the ability of the body to restrict dangerous microorganisms or viruses from ent

Types of Immunity: 

There are four types of immune system which are explained in the below:

Ø   Innate (Natural) Immunity:

It is the natural resistance components such as intact skin, salivary enzymes, and neutrophils, natural killer cells, which provide an initial response against infection that is present in an individual at birth prior to exposure to a pathogen or antigen.

Adaptive (Acquired) Immune System:

It is that which develops antibodies after an attack of an infectious disease or by a pregnant mother passing through the placenta to a fetus or by vaccination.

Ø  Active Immunity:

It refers to the method of exposing the body to an antigen for generating an adaptive immune response. The response takes days/ weeks to develop but may be long- lasting. For example recovery from Hepatitis-A virus gives a natural active immune response that usually leading lifelong protection. In a similar manner, administration of two doses of Hepatitis-A vaccine generates an acquired active immune response which leading to long lasting defense.

Ø  Passive Immunity:

It refers to the method of imparting IgG antibodies to keep safe against infection. It gives immediate, but short- lived protection such as several weeks to 3 or 4 months at most. It is occurs during pregnancy. The transfer of maternal tetanus antibody (mainly IgG) across the placenta provides passive immune to newborn baby for several weeks/ months until such antibody is degraded and lost

Many different things can make your immune system weak, including:

1 not getting enough fresh food and vitamins not sleeping enough

2 working too hard or partying too much

3 using drugs, drinking alcohol and smoking

stress

4 poor housing

 5  long-term illness, which affects your immune system – diabetes or HIV, for example

certain prescription drugs – ask your doctor for advice being pregnant or elderly.

The Importance of Immune System

1 Immune system is our body’s system that keeps us safe from infection and diseases.  Our immune system plays an important role in maintaining proper health. Every single day we breathe inhale, every drop of water we drink or the  every bite of food we eat, all contains germs. Our bodies are vulnerable to attack by germs’.

2 Most people are aware of the benefits of chiropractic care for back and neck pain, did you know that chiropractic treatment can help improve immune system function.  The immune system is the body’s first line of defense designed to fight off bacterial and viral infections.  Many factors contribute to a person’s immune system’s ability to maintain optimal health.  Nutrition, exercise, posture, stress, and fatigue are important, but so is the health of your spine.  While we are in the midst of cold and flu season, let me explain how chiropractic care can support your immune system and keep you well.

3 Chiropractic care specifically corrects spinal misalignments called vertebral subluxations.  These misalignments of the spine can put pressure on the spinal cord and nerves which exit at each level of the spine.  This can cause stress and interference of the nervous system.  Simply put whatever message that is trying to be sent from the brain and out to the body does not get sent properly. Picture a kink in a garden hose.  Chiropractic adjustments correct spinal abnormalities thus relieving stress from the nervous system and allowing it to function properly.

4. The immune system, like every other system in the body, is coordinated and controlled by the nervous system.  Specific immune organs including the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes are all in communication with the master control ,the brain, through nerves which connect them.  Picture a telephone wire.  During an immune response, the brain and the immune system “talk to each other” and coordinate the body’s response to the exposure.  This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis or balance in the body.  If the nervous system is not functioning properly, then the immune system cannot function properly, and the body becomes susceptible to bacteria, viruses, and illness which it can usually fight off.

Along with correcting spinal misalignments and allowing for a stress free nervous system, the actual adjustment causes an immediate immune boost. A study found that disease fighting white blood cell counts were significantly higher just 15 minutes after chiropractic adjustment.  Another study found that increased levels of certain antibodies

appear in the bloodstream up to 2 hours after an adjustment which suggests a priming effect of the immune system and a possible faster response to a new infection.

Components of the immune system

The immune system includes:

Ø  Innate immunity or (nonspecific immunity) which consist of 4 type of barriers;

·         Physical barriers

·         Physiological barriers

·         Cellular barriers

·         Cytokine barriers

·         Adaptive immunity or (specific immunity)

Ø  These are further divided into humoral and cellular components.

The humoral components of the innate system include the complement system, the coagulation system and cytokines. The cellular components include neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, NK (natural killer) cells, eosinophils. Besides these there is the anatomical barrier that includes mechanical factors, chemical factors, biological factors.

Hygiene is a set of practices performed to preserve health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases."[2] Personal hygiene refers to maintaining the body's cleanliness.

Many people equate hygiene with 'cleanliness,' but hygiene is a broad term. It includes such personal habit choices as how frequently to bathe, wash hands, trim fingernails, and change clothing. It also includes attention to keeping surfaces in the home and workplace, including bathroom facilities, clean and pathogen-free.

Some regular hygiene practices may be considered good habits by a society, while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful, or threatening.

PERSONAL HYGIENE AND GOOD MANNER;

Hygiene is a set of practices performed to preserve health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases. Personal hygiene refers to maintaining the body's cleanliness. Many people equate hygiene with 'cleanliness but hygiene is a broad term. It includes such personal habit choices as how frequently to bathe, wash hands, trim fingernails, and change clothing. It also includes attention to keeping surfaces in the home and workplace, including bathroom facilities, clean and pathogen-free. Some regular hygiene practices may be considered good habits by a society, while the neglect of hygiene can be considered disgusting, disrespectful, or threatening.

Personal hygiene  ; involves those practices performed by an individual to care for one's bodily health and well being, through cleanliness.

Good manners

Definitions

 The treatment of other people with courtesy and politeness, and showing correct public behavior.

How to Have Good Manners

Manners are an important thing to learn. Having good manners means acting in a manner that is socially acceptable and respectful. Excellent manners can help you to have better relationships with people you know, and those you will meet. Some steps to take in an effort to develop good manners would be to familiarize yourself with basic etiquette such as dining and phone etiquette. Being polite to others is always a good place to start and you can begin your journey to good manners by holding doors open for others when possible. Good manners convey respect to those you interact with, and also commands respect from those you interact with.

Examples of good manner in our society

1.      Respect

2.      Responsible

3.      Dripline

4.      Greetings

5.      Help others

GOOD MANNERS IN THE WORKPLACE

OBJECTIVES:

a)To give the participants some guidance regarding basic principles and manners when entering a room.

To discover and discuss the basic rules of personal hygiene;

b)To analyze what you do and do not do, and why, when entering a room;

c)To encourage changes in attitude for improved communication with guests;

d)Standardization of forms of attendance;

e) Personal presentation in line with the hotel product;

f)Way to communicate in the corridors and inside hotel rooms;

g)Understanding the different ways of communication;

h )Mistakes and obstacles to be avoided;

 I) Proper use of the telephone;

j) The consequences of improper communication ;

Personal hygiene.

The human body can provide places for disease-causing germs and parasites to grow and multiply. These places include the skin and in and around the openings to the body.

Good personal hygiene

Good personal hygiene habits include:

 1) washing the body often. If possible, everybody should have a shower or a bath every day. However, there may be times when this is not possible, for example, when people are out camping or there is a shortage of water If this happens, a swim or a wash all over the body with a wet sponge or cloth will do

2) cleaning the teeth at least once a day. Brushing the teeth after each meal is the best way of making sure that gum disease and tooth decay are avoided. It is very important to clean teeth after breakfast and immediately before going to bed

3) washing the hair with soap or shampoo at least once a week

4) washing hands with soap after going to the toilet ;washing hands with soap before preparing and/or eating food. During normal daily activities, such as working and playing, disease causing germs may get onto the hands and under the nails. If the germs are not washed off before preparing food or eating, they may get onto the food

5) changing into clean clothes. Dirty clothes should be washed with laundry soap before wearing them again hanging clothes in the sun to dry. The sun's rays will kill some disease-causing germs and parasites

6 turning away from other people and covering the nose and mouth with a tissue or the hand when coughing or sneezing. If this is not done, droplets of liquid containing germs from the nose and mouth will be spread in the air and other people can breathe them in, or the droplets can get onto food

10 Reasons for Personal Hygiene.

Proper personal hygiene means taking care of every aspect of your body, from keeping it clean to looking your best. Basic hygiene should be taught to children at an early age to help establish good habits. Parents can reinforce good hygienic behavior by creating routines and being good role models. Personal hygiene practices include bathing, washing your hands, keeping your hair clean and brushing your teeth. Your personal, social and professional worlds are all affected by hygiene habits.

Disease Prevention

Wash your hands often to prevent the spread of disease. Each time you use the restroom, wash your hands before leaving the area to remove germs. Wash your hands before you handle food, eat or take out contact lenses.

Nice Smile

Most people want to keep their teeth and have attractive smiles. This requires frequent brushing and good dental habits. If you fail to brush your teeth, they are more likely to become discolored, get cavities and possibly fall out. According to the American Academy of Periodontology, regular brushing and flossing can significantly decrease the risk of gum disease, which can cause bad breath or even worse—tooth loss.

Lower Health Care Costs

Since it curbs the spread of disease, good hygiene results in lower health care costs. Brushing your teeth and keeping clean could eliminate unnecessary visits to your dentist and doctor, saving you money.

Dandruff Prevention

Good hygiene includes washing your hair and brushing it regularly to prevent dandruff and other scalp diseases. It's embarrassing when you glance down at your dark shirt and see white skin flakes that everyone else has probably already noticed.

Self-Esteem

When you're clean, you'll feel much better about yourself than when you're dirty. People will react more positively to you, which will also help raise your self-esteem.

Sex Appeal

You are more likely to appeal to a potential partner if you practice good hygiene. Dirty hair, discolored teeth and bad breath can keep you from having romance in your life.

Social Acceptance

Good hygiene is critical for social acceptance, because most people don't want to be around others who are dirty or smelly. Children who practice good hygiene eliminate one major reason for other kids to make fun of or bully them. It's sad to see someone on the playground getting taunted for smelling bad or having dirty hair.

Professional Acceptance

Most employers prefer employees who are clean and well-groomed. Good hygiene can make the difference in being hired and getting promotions.

Being a Role Model

Parents should set an example for their children by practicing good hygiene. Children are more likely to do what you do than what you say.

Pain Prevention

Periodontal disease can cause chronic mouth pain in advanced stages, the American Academy of Periodontology reports. The main cause of gum disease is plaque buildup, which can be reduced with proper oral hygiene.

INFECTION AND DISEASES.

An infection happens when a foreign organism enters a person's body and causes harm. The organism uses that person's body to sustain itself, reproduce, and colonize. These infectious organisms are known as pathogens. Examples of pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and prions. Pathogens can multiply and adapt quickly.

Some infections are mild and barely noticeable, but others are severe and life-threatening, and some are resistant to treatment. Infection can be transmitted in a variety of ways.

These include skin contact, bodily fluids, contact with feces, airborne particles, and touching an object that an infected person has also touched. How an infection spreads and its effect on the human body depend on the type of agent.

The immune system is an effective barrier against infectious agents, but colonies of pathogens may grow too large for the immune.  system to fight. At this stage, infections become harmful. Many pathogens give off toxins that trigger negative responses from the body.

Fast facts on infection

Infection is the effect of a foreign organism in the body. Types of infection include bacterial, fungal, viral, protozoan, parasitic, and prion disease.  They are classified by the type of organism causing the infection. Infections can range from mild inflammation in one person to an epidemic.

Bacteria are one type of infectious agent.

Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites, and prions are different types of pathogen. They vary in their size, shape, function, genetic content, and how they act on the body.

For example, viruses are smaller than bacteria, and they can enter a host and take over cells. However, bacteria can survive without a host.

Treatment will depend on the type of pathogen. This article will focus on the most common and deadly types of infection: Bacterial, viral, fungal, and prion.

Viral infection:

The common cold is a viral infection.  Viral infections are caused by a virus. Millions of types of virus are thought to exist, but only 5,000 types have been identified. Viruses contain a small piece of genetic code. They are protected by a coat of protein and fat.

Viruses invade a host and attach themselves to a cell. As they enter the cell, they release genetic material. The genetic material forces the cell to replicate, and the virus multiplies. When the cell dies, it releases new viruses, and these go on to infect new cells.

Not all viruses destroy their host cell. Some of them change the function of the cell. In this way, viruses such as human papillomavirus (HPV) or Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) can lead to cancer by forcing cells to replicate in an uncontrolled way.

They can also target certain age groups, such as infants or young children.

A virus may remain dormant for a period before multiplying again. The person with the virus can appear to have recovered but may get sick again when the virus reactivates.

Here are some examples of viral infections:

the common cold, mainly caused by the rhinovirus, coronavirus, and adenovirus

encephalitis and meningitis, caused by enteroviruses and the herpes viruses

warts and skin infections, caused by the human papillomaviruses (HPV) and herpes simplex virus (HSV).

gastroenteritis, caused by the nova virus:-

Other viral conditions include:

Zika virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C, polio, influenza, Dengue fever, H1N1 swine flu, Ebola

Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV)

Antiviral medications help in some cases. They can either prevent the virus from reproducing or boost the host's immune system.

Antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Using antibiotics against a virus will not stop the virus, and it increases the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Most treatment aims to relieve symptoms while the immune system combats the virus without assistance from medicine.

Bacterial infections

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms known as prokaryotes.    There are estimated to be at least one nonillion bacteria on Earth. A nonillion is a one followed by 30 zeros. Much of Earth's biomass is made up of bacteria.

Bacteria take three main shapes:

Spherical: These are usually the simplest to treat and are known as cocci.

Rod-shaped: These are called bacilli.

Spiral: Coiled bacteria are known as spirillum. If the coil of a spirillums is particularly tight, they are known as spirochetes.

Bacteria can live in almost any kind of environment, from extreme heat to intense cold, and some can even survive in radioactive was

These include:

Cholera, diphtheria, dysentery, bubonic plague, pneumonia, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus

Some examples of bacterial infections are: ,bacterial meningitis, otitis media, pneumonia, tuberculosis, upper respiratory tract infection, gastritis, food poisoning eye infections, sinusitis, urinary tract infections, skin infections and sexually transmitted diseases

NOTE:  Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, but some strains become resistant and can survive the treatment.

Fungal infection

 Infection fungus

Fungi reproduce by spreading spores.

A fungus is an often multi-cellular parasite that can decompose and then absorb organic matter using an enzyme.

They almost always reproduce through the spreading of single-celled spores, and the structure of a fungus is normally long and cylindrical with small filaments branching from the main body. This structure is known as hypha.

                There are approximately 51 million species of fungus.

Many fungal infections will appear in the upper layers of the skin, and some progress to the deeper layers. Inhaled fungal spores can lead to systemic fungal infections, such as thrush, or candidiasis. Systemic diseases affect the whole body.

The body usually has a population of "good" bacteria that help to maintain the balance of microorganisms in the intestines, mouth, vagina, and other parts of the body.

If enough "good" bacteria are destroyed, for example, by overusing antibiotics, fungi can grow and cause health problems for the host.

Those with a higher risk of developing a fungal infection include people who:

use strong antibiotics for a long time have a weakened immune system, due, for example, to HIV or AIDS, diabetes, chemotherapy treatment, and those who have undergone a transplant, as they take medications to prevent their body from rejecting the new organ

Examples of fungal infections are: valley fever, or coccidioido mycosis, athlete's foot  ,ringworm and some eye infections

A rash can be an indicator of a fungal infection of the skin.

ü        Prion disease

A prion is a protein that contains no genetic material. It is normally harmless, but if it folds into an abnormal shape, it can become a rogue agent and affect the structure of the brain or other parts of the nervous system.

Prions do not replicate or feed on the host but trigger abnormal behavior in the body's cells and proteins.

Prion diseases are rare, but they progress rapidly, and all are currently fatal.

Prions cause degenerative brain diseases, such as: bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease , Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)

Researchers have linked some cases of Alzheimer's disease to prion infection.

ü  Other infections

While the forms of infection mentioned above are the main types, there are others that can have an effect on the body.

A single-celled organism with a nucleus can cause a protozoan infection. Protozoa commonly show features similar to animals, such as mobility, and can survive outside of the human body. They are most commonly transferred by contact with feces.

When they enter the human body, protozoa can also cause infection. Amebic dysentery is an example of a protozoan infection.

Helminths are larger, multicellular organisms that tend to be visible to the naked eye when full-grown. This type of parasite includes flatworms and roundworms. These are also able to infect the human body.

Finally, ectoparasites such as mites, ticks, lice, and fleas can cause infection by attaching or burrowing into the skin.

The term can also include blood-sucking arthropods, such as mosquitos, that transmit infection by consuming human blood.

ü   Causes of infection ;

The cause of an infection is said to be whichever type of organism has invaded the body.

ü  A particular virus, for example, will be the cause of a viral infection.

The effects of an infection, such as swelling or a runny nose, occur as a result of the immune system fighting the invading organism. A wound filling with pus, for example, occurs when white blood cells rush to the site of an injury to combat foreign bacteria.

ü  Symptoms

The symptoms of an infection depend on the organism responsible as well as the site of the infection.

Viruses target specific cells, such as those in the genitals or upper respiratory tract. The rabies virus, for example, targets the nervous system. Some viruses target skin cells, causing warts. Others target a wider range of cells, leading to various symptoms. A flu virus can cause a runny nose, muscle aches, and an upset stomach.

A person with a bacterial infection will often experience redness and heat, swelling, fever, pain at the site of infection, and swollen lymph glands. A bacterial infection is less likely to affect a wide area of the body than a viral one.

  A rash can be an indicator of a fungal infection of the skin.

Common symptoms of prion diseases include brain damage, memory loss, and cognitive difficulties. They can also trigger the buildup of plaque in the brain, causing it to waste away.

Ø    Prevention

There is no single way to prevent all infectious diseases, but the following tips can reduce the risk of transmission:

a)      Wash your hands often, especially before and after preparing food and after using the bathroom.

b)      Clean surface areas and avoid leaving room-temperature food exposed when cooking.

c)      Receive any recommended vaccinations, and keep them up to date.

d)      Only take antibiotics when prescribed, and be sure to complete any recommended course even if symptoms improve earlier than anticipated.

e)      Disinfect rooms where there may be high concentrations of bacteria, such as the kitchen and bathroom.

f)       Practice safe sex by receiving regular STD checks, using condoms, or abstaining altogether.

g)      Avoid sharing personal items such a tooth brushes, combs, razorblades, drinking glasses, and kitchen utensils.

h)      Follow a doctor's advice about traveling or working when you are ill, as you could infect others.

i)       A healthy, active lifestyle can help keep the immune system strong and able to defend the body against different kinds of it.

DISEASES

A disease is a particular abnormal condition that affects part or all of an organism not caused by external force and that consists of a disorder of a structure or function, usually serving as an evolutionary disadvantage. The study of disease is called pathology, which includes the study of cause. Disease is often construed as a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions, particularly of the immune system, such as an immunodeficiency, or by a hypersensitivity, including allergies and autoimmunity.

When caused by pathogens (e.g. malaria by Plasmodium ssp.), the term disease is often misleadingly used even in the scientific literature in place of its causal agent, the pathogen. This language habit can cause confusion in the communication of the cause-effect principle in epidemiology, and as such it should be strongly discouraged.[4]

In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically, but also emotionally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life.

Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of disease: infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, genetic diseases (both hereditary and non-hereditary), and physiological diseases. Diseases can also be classified as communicable and non-communicable. The deadliest diseases in humans are coronary artery disease (blood flow obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections

 OR.  Disease, any harmful deviation from the normal structural or functional state of an organism, generally associated with certain signs and symptoms and differing in nature from physical injury. A diseased organism commonly exhibits signs or symptoms indicative of its abnormal state. Thus, the normal condition of an organism must be understood in order to recognize the hallmarks of disease. Nevertheless, a sharp demarcation between disease and health is not always apparent.

The study of disease is called pathology. It involves the determination of the cause (etiology) of the disease, the understanding of the mechanisms of its development (pathogenesis), the structural changes associated with the disease process (morphological changes), and the functional consequences of those changes. Correctly identifying the cause of a disease is necessary to identifying the proper course of treatment.

Overview

ü  Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms — such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Many organisms live in and on our bodies. They're normally harmless or even helpful, but under certain conditions, some organisms may cause disease.

Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person. Some are transmitted by bites from insects or animals. And others are acquired by ingesting contaminated food or water or being exposed to organisms in the environment.

Signs and symptoms vary depending on the organism causing the infection, but often include fever and fatigue. Mild infections may respond to rest and home remedies, while some life-threatening infections may require hospitalization.

Many infectious diseases, such as measles and chickenpox, can be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps protect you from most infectious diseases.

Symptoms

Each infectious disease has its own specific signs and symptoms. General signs and symptoms common to a number of infectious diseases include:

o   Fever

o   Diarrhea

o   Fatigue

o   Muscle aches

o   Coughing

When to see a doctor Seek medical attention if you:

1.      Have been bitten by an animal

2.      Are having trouble breathing

3.      Have been coughing for more than a week

4.      Have severe headache with fever

5.      Experience a rash or swelling

6.      Have unexplained or prolonged fever

7.      Have sudden vision problems Request an Appointment at Mayo Clinic

Causes of diseases;

Infectious diseases can be caused by:

§  Bacteria. These one-cell organisms are responsible for illnesses such as strep throat, urinary tract infections and tuberculosis.

§  Viruses. Even smaller than bacteria, viruses cause a multitude of diseases — ranging from the common cold to AIDS.

§  Fungi. Many skin diseases, such as ringworm and athlete's foot, are caused by fungi. Other types of fungi can infect your lungs or nervous system.

§  Parasites. Malaria is caused by a tiny parasite that is transmitted by a mosquito bite. Other parasites may be transmitted to humans from animal feces.

Ø                   Direct contact

An easy way to catch most infectious diseases is by coming in contact with a person or animal who has the infection. Three ways infectious diseases can be spread through direct contact are:

1.      Person to person. A common way for infectious diseases to spread is through the direct transfer of bacteria, viruses or other germs from one person to another. This can occur when an individual with the bacterium or virus touches, kisses, or coughs or sneezes on someone who isn't infected. These germs can also spread through the exchange of body fluids from sexual contact. The person who passes the germ may have no symptoms of the disease, but may simply be a carrier.

2.      Animal to person. Being bitten or scratched by an infected animal — even a pet — can make you sick and, in extreme circumstances, can be fatal. Handling animal waste can be hazardous, too. For example, you can acquire a toxoplasmosis infection by scooping your cat's litter box.

3.      Mother to unborn child. A pregnant woman may pass germs that cause infectious diseases to her unborn baby. Some germs can pass through the placenta. Germs in the vagina can be transmitted to the baby during birth.

Ø               Indirect contact

Disease-causing organisms also can be passed by indirect contact. Many germs can linger on an inanimate object, such as a tabletop, doorknob or faucet handle.

1.      When you touch a doorknob handled by someone ill with the flu or a cold, for example, you can pick up the germs he or she left behind. If you then touch your eyes, mouth or nose before washing your hands, you may become infected.

2.      Insect bites

Some germs rely on insect carriers — such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice or ticks — to move from host to host. These carriers are known as vectors. Mosquitoes can carry the malaria parasite or West Nile virus, and deer ticks may carry the bacterium that causes Lyme disease.

Food contamination

Another way disease-causing germs can infect you is through contaminated food and water. This mechanism of transmission allows germs to be spread to many people through a single source. E. coli, for example, is a bacterium present in or on certain foods — such as undercooked hamburger or unpasteurized fruit juice.

         Risk factors

While anyone can catch infectious diseases, you may be more likely to get sick if your immune system isn't working properly. This may occur if:

        i.            You're taking steroids or other medications that suppress your immune system, such as anti-rejection drugs for a transplanted organ You have HIV or AIDS

You have certain types of cancer or other disorders that affect your immune system

In addition, certain other medical conditions may predispose you to infection, including implanted medical devices, malnutrition and extremes of age, among others.

Complications

Most infectious diseases have only minor complications. But some infections — such as pneumonia, AIDS and meningitis — can become life-threatening. A few types of infections have been linked to a long-term increased risk of cancer:

Human papillomavirus is linked to cervical cancer

Helicobacter pylori is linked to stomach cancer and peptic ulcers

Hepatitis B and C have been linked to liver cancer

In addition, some infectious diseases may become silent, only to appear again in the future — sometimes even decades later. For example, someone who's had a chickenpox infection may develop shingles much later in life.

Ø        Prevention

Infectious agents can enter your body through:

·          Skin contact or injuries

·         Inhalation of airborne germs

·         Ingestion of contaminated food or water

·         Tick or mosquito bites

·         Sexual contact

Follow these tips to decrease your risk of infecting yourself or others:

v  Wash your hands. This is especially important before and after preparing food, before eating, and after using the toilet. And try not to touch your eyes, nose or mouth with your hands, as that's a common way germs enter the body.

v  Get vaccinated. Immunization can drastically reduce your chances of contracting many diseases. Make sure to keep up to date on your recommended vaccinations, as well as your children's.

v  Stay home when ill. Don't go to work if you are vomiting, have diarrhea or have a fever. Don't send your child to school if he or she has these signs and symptoms, either.

v  Prepare food safely. Keep counters and other kitchen surfaces clean when preparing meals. Cook foods to the proper temperature using a food thermometer to check for doneness. For ground meats ,and for most other meat.

In addition, promptly refrigerate leftovers — don't let cooked foods remain at room temperature for extended periods of time.

v  Practice safe sex. Always use condoms if you or your partner has a history of sexually transmitted infections or high-risk behavior.

v  Don't share personal items. Use your own toothbrush, comb and razor. Avoid sharing drinking glasses or dining utensils.

v  Travel wisely. If you're traveling out of the country, talk to your doctor about any special vaccinations — such as yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A or B, or typhoid fever — you may need.

Some examples of diseases

Malaria

Malaria: Symptoms, treatment, and prevention.

Malaria is a life-threatening mosquito-borne blood disease caused by a Plasmodium parasite.

It is transmitted to humans through the bite of the Anopheles mosquito. Once an infected mosquito bites a human, the parasites multiply in the host's liver before infecting and destroying red blood cells. In some places, malaria can be treated and controlled with early diagnosis. However, some countries lack the resources to do this effectively. Currently, no vaccine is licensed for use in the United States or globally, although one is available in the world but causes still occur each year, mostly in those who have recently traveled to malaria-endemic areas

What is malaria?

§  Symptoms

§  Causes

§  Diagnosis and tests

§  Treatment and prevention

§  Fast facts on malaria:

Here are some key points about the malaria ;

Malaria is typically spread by mosquitoes.

Symptoms resemble those of flu, but, without treatment, the effects can sometimes be long-term and fatal.

Travelers, hikers, and campers can protect themselves with medication, pest control, clothing, and nets.

What is malaria?  Malaria is passed on by the Anopheles mosquito.

Over 100 types of Plasmodium parasite can infect a variety of species. They replicate at different rates, and this affects how quickly the symptoms escalate, and the severity of the disease.

Five types of Plasmodium parasite can infect humans. They are found in different parts of the world. Some cause a more severe type of malaria than others.

Symptoms

Malaria symptoms can be classified into two categories: uncomplicated and severe malaria.

1) Uncomplicated malaria

This is diagnosed when symptoms are present, but there are no signs to indicate severe infection or dysfunction of the vital organs. This form can become severe malaria if left untreated, or if the host has poor or no immunity.

Symptoms of uncomplicated malaria typically last 6 to 10 hours and recur every second day. Some strains of the parasite can have a longer cycle or cause mixed symptoms.

As symptoms resemble those of flu, they may be undiagnosed or misdiagnosed in areas where malaria is less common.

In uncomplicated malaria, symptoms progress as follows, through cold, hot, and sweating stages:

a sensation of cold with shivering

fever, headaches, and vomiting

seizures sometimes occur in younger people with the disease

sweats, followed by a return to normal temperature, with tiredness

In areas where malaria is common, many patients recognize the symptoms as malaria and treat themselves without visiting a doctor.

  Severe malaria

In severe malaria, clinical or laboratory evidence shows signs of vital organ dysfunction.

Symptoms of severe malaria include:

«  fever and chills

«  impaired consciousness

«  prostration, or adopting a prone position

multiple convulsions

«  deep breathing and respiratory distress

«  abnormal bleeding and signs of anemia clinical jaundice and evidence of vital organ dysfunction

Severe malaria can be fatal without treatment.

Causes

Malaria happens when a bite from the female Anopheles mosquito infects the body with Plasmodium. Only the Anopheles mosquito can transmit malaria.

The successful development of the parasite within the mosquito depends on several factors, the most important being humidity and ambient temperatures.

When an infected mosquito bites a human host, the parasite enters the bloodstream and lays dormant within the liver.

The host will have no symptoms for an average of 10.5 days, but the malaria parasite will begin multiplying during this time.

The new malaria parasites are then released back into the bloodstream, where they infect red blood cells and multiply further. Some malaria parasites remain in the liver and are not released until later, resulting in recurrence.

An unaffected mosquito becomes infected once it feeds on an infected individual. This restarts the cycle.

ü  Diagnosis and tests

Early diagnosis is critical for a patient's recovery.

Anyone showing signs of malaria should be tested immediately.

The World Health Organization (WHO) strongly advise confirmation of the parasite through microscopic laboratory testing or by a rapid diagnostic test (RDT), depending on the facilities available.

No combination of symptoms can reliably distinguish malaria from other causes, so a parasitological test is vital for identifying and managing the disease.

In some malaria-endemic areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, the disease's severity can cause mild immunity in a large proportion of the local population.

As a result, some people carry the parasites in their bloodstream but do not fall ill.

ü   Treatment and prevention

Treatment aims to eliminate the Plasmodium parasite from the patient's bloodstream.

Those without symptoms may be treated for infection to reduce the risk of disease transmission in the surrounding population.

Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is recommended by the WHO to treat uncomplicated malaria.

Artemisinin is derived from the plant Artemisia annual, better known as sweet wormwood. It is known for its ability to rapidly reduce the concentration of Plasmodium parasites in the bloodstream.

ACT is artemisinin combined with a partner drug. The role of artemisinin is to reduce the number of parasites within the first 3 days of infection, while the partner drugs eliminate the rest.

Expanding access to ACT treatment worldwide has helped reduce the impact of malaria, but the disease is becoming increasingly resistant to the effects of ACT.

               In places where malaria is resistant to ACT, treatment must contain an effective partner drug.

The WHO has warned that no alternatives to artemisinin are likely to become available for several years.

ü  Vaccination

Research to develop safe and effective global vaccines for malaria is ongoing, with one vaccine already licensed for use in Europe. No vaccine is yet licensed in the U.S.

It is essential to seek medical attention for suspected symptoms of malaria as early as possible.

ü  Prevention: Advice for travelers

Travelers to places where malaria is prevalent should take precautions, for example, using mosquito nets.

Travelers to places where malaria is prevalent should take precautions, for example, using mosquito nets

CHOLERA

1.0 Introduction

Cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholera. The infection is often mild or without symptoms, but sometimes can be severe. An acute water shortage in parts of eastern and northeastern Kenya is fueling the spread of acute watery diarrhea (AWD) and cholera, with deaths from new cases being reported. People are resorting to drinking water from anywhere because of the shortage. (IRIN, 2010). Kajiado District is such one District that suffers from water shortage especially during prolonged droughts. Thus, people often fall victim of this disease.  No lasting measures have yet been put in place to curb the disease. The paper examines this disease based on the framework of it causes, signs and symptoms, diagnosis and prevention. Further the paper gives some demonstration on the disease to enlighten the community members more about it. Also to examine some preventive measures that can be undertaken to safeguard world cup visitors who may visit the place.

v    Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment of Cholera

ü  Causes and Transmission

Cholera is a severe diarrhea disease that is deadly without treatment. It is caused by poor hygiene and sanitation systems (World Health Organization, 2008). The disease is transmitted through water borne and food borne transmission.

Waterborne transmission:   one can transmit the disease once he/ she consume water that is contaminated with feces from an infected person. This is common in areas with poor sewage systems and unclean drinking water. People infected with cholera suffer acute diarrhea. This liquid diarrhea, colloquially referred to as "rice-water stool," is loaded with bacteria that can infect water used by other people (Ryan & Ray, 2004). The source of the contamination is typically other cholera patients when their untreated diarrhea discharge is allowed to get into waterways or into groundwater or drinking water supplies.

Food borne transmission: Also, consumption of cholera can be through drinking contaminated water or eating foods that have been washed with or made with contaminated water. Food borne transmission may also occur when an individual eats raw or undercooked shellfish. Any infected water and any foods washed in the water, as well as shellfish living in the affected waterway, can cause an infection. Cholera is rarely spread directly from person to person. V. cholera harbors naturally in the zooplankton of fresh, brackish, and salt water, attached primarily to their chitins exoskeleton. (Kirn 2005).

Once the bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to get to the intestinal wall where they can thrive. V. cholera bacteria. They then start up production of the hollow cylindrical protein flagellant  to make flagella, the curly whip-like tails that they rotate to propel themselves through the mucus of the small intestine. After they reach the intestinal wall, the bacteria stops producing the protein flagellant . It therefore starts conserving energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins that they manufacture in response to the changed chemical surroundings. The toxic protein is the one that gives the infected person a watery diarrhea. This diarrhea carries the multiplying new generations of V. cholera  bacteria out into the drinking water of the next host if proper sanitation measures are not in place (Hartwell and Verse, 2004).

ü   Symptoms

The primary symptoms of cholera:

·         Profuse diarrhea sometimes called “rice water stools”

·        Abdominal pain

Others may include:   vomiting , leg cramps

These symptoms start suddenly, usually one to five days after infection, and are the result of a toxin produced by the vibrio cholera bacterium that compels profuse amounts of fluid from the blood supply into the small and large intestines (Kindersley, 1989). An untreated cholera patient may produce several gallons of diarrheal  fluid a day (Diamond, 1999). Due to this rapid loss of fluids, severe dehydration and shock can occur in these individuals. Shock occurs due to collapse of the circulatory system and if the fluid is not replaced, the patient may die within several hours.

Signs of dehydration include:

·        loss of skin plasticity

·         sunken eyes

·        fast heartbeat

·        low blood pressure

·        Rapid weight loss

ü  Diagnosis

In epidemic situations, a clinical diagnosis is made by taking a history of symptoms from the patient and by a brief examination only. People must begin treatment even before diagnostic work-up confirmation by laboratory analysis of specimens. Lab tests include stool gram stain (gram negative rods) culture, dark field microscopy or stool PCR. Stool and swab samples collected in the acute stage of the disease, before antibiotics have been administered, are the most useful specimens for laboratory diagnosis (Laboratory Methods for the Diagnosis of Epidemic Dysentery and Cholera, 1999).

ü   Prevention

A new oral vaccine, called Dukoral  is available in other countries, but prophylactic usage is not currently recommended for routine use by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) because of incomplete protective effects (WHO, 2008). The CDC therefore recommends:

Sterilization: Proper disposal and treatment of all materials that come in contact with cholera patients should be sterilized by washing in hot water using chlorine bleach if possible.

Sewage: anti-bacterial treatment of general sewage by chlorine, ozone, ultra-violet light or other effective treatment before it enters the waterways or underground water supplies helps prevent undiagnosed patients from inadvertently spreading the disease.

Sources: Warnings about possible cholera contamination should be posted around contaminated water sources with directions on how to decontaminate the water (boiling, chlorination etc.) for possible use.

Water purification: All water used for drinking, washing, or cooking should be sterilized by either boiling, chlorination, ozone water treatment, ultra-violet light sterilization, or anti-microbial filtration in any area where cholera may be present. Chlorination and boiling are often the least expensive and most effective means of halting transmission.

Sensitive surveillance: Surveillance systems can provide early alerts to outbreaks, therefore leading to coordinated response and assist in preparation of preparedness plans. Understanding the seasonality and location of outbreaks provide guidance for improving cholera control activities for the most vulnerable. According to (Bertranpetit & Cal fell, 1996) this will also aid in the developing indicators for appropriate use of oral cholera vaccine.

ü   Treatment

Because death from cholera is a consequence of dehydration, the disease is treated using oral rehydration therapy (ORT). ORT is highly effective, safe, and simple to administer. In situations where commercially produced ORT sachets are too expensive or difficult to obtain, alternative homemade solutions using various formulas of water, sugar, table salt, baking soda, and fruit offer less expensive methods of electrolyte repletion. Severe cases of cholera require intravenous fluid replacement. Antibiotics can shorten illness, but ORT is still necessary even when antibiotics are used. Tetracycline is typically used as the primary antibiotic, although some strains of V. cholerae have shown resistance. Other antibiotics that have been proven effective against V. cholerae include cotrimoxazole, erythromycin, doxycycline, chloramphenicol, and furazolidone (Molson Medical Informatics, 2007). According to Krishna & Chandrasekhar (2006), Fluoroquinolones such as norfloxacin also may be used, but resistance has been reported. Use of anti-diarrheal medicines is not recommended since they prevent flushing of the bacteria out of the body

ü  Demonstration of Cholera Awareness Program in the School Community

«  Introduction

Sanitation and hygiene are key to community cholera prevention efforts. Members of community to know that they need to wash their hands each time before handling food, before eating and after visiting the toilet. These are the key messages (simple) which each member of the community need to know. However, a general program has various other parts including the causes, symptoms and even treatment for those affected

Ø  Prevention/ Treatment of World Cup Visitors

«   Introduction

For World Cup Visitors, a number of measures should be taken to ensure that no one is infected by Cholera virus. We understand that a person may get cholera by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the cholera bacterium. In an epidemic, the source of the contamination is usually the feces (stool) of an infected person. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water. Since Kajiado District is one such district which is semi-arid and there is shortage of water, a number of measures should be taken to ensure that any visitor who may visit the district for cultural experience or even wild life tour is protected.

«  Preventive Measures

                    i.            To prevent cholera from infecting the visitors, personal and general preventive measures should be taken. The following measures are essential:

                  ii.            When purchasing food: Do not buy food from unlicensed food premises or illegal hawkers; Pay attention to hygienic condition of shops and the holding temperature of food.

                iii.            Food hygiene at home: Keep raw and cooked food separately. Defrost foods only when needed; Use separate utensils and equipment to handle raw food and cooked food to prevent cross contamination; Consume cooked food as soon as possible; Left-over food must be stored in a refrigerator at a temperature below 4 degrees Celsius and be reheated thoroughly before consumption. Discard any food if

spoilage is suspected; and Boil water thoroughly before drinking.

Personal hygiene: pay attention to personal hygiene.  Wash hands thoroughly with soap, before eating, preparing food and after going to toilet.

  Environmental hygiene: Keep kitchen clean; and Store refuse in a well-covered dustbin.

        HIV/AIDS

Overview

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that infects humans and can lead to an advanced disease state called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). There are two types of the HIV virus: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more virulent and the dominant strain seen globally.

HIV is transmitted through bodily fluids (e.g. semen, blood and breast milk) via activities like sexual intercourse, needle injection and breastfeeding. What makes this virus unique is its ability to evade the body’s natural defense system by hiding in immune cells called CD4+ T cells. In fact, HIV effectively hijacks these immune cells and uses them to replicate before destroying them.

AIDS occurs in the final stage of HIV infection, when so many immune cells are destroyed that the immune system can no longer fight disease. Although HIV and AIDS are often used interchangeably, it is important to know they refer to the virus and the late-stage disease, respectively.

The earliest case of HIV in the United States dates back to mid- to late 1970s. According the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), over 1.2 million people in the United States are currently living with HIV, with 50,000 new infections expected each year. In the United States, men who have sex with men have the highest risk of contracting HIV.

Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that roughly 35 million people are living with HIV/AIDS; of them, approximately 3.2 million are children under the age of 15. HIV/AIDS continues to be a global health problem with low-income countries in Sub-Saharan Africa being the most affected.

Without treatment, the life expectancy of an HIV-infected individual is 9-11 years. Following an AIDS diagnosis, that life expectancy is reduced to less than 2 years. The cause of death is generally due to complications from certain cancers (e.g. Kaposi’s sarcoma and lymphomas) and opportunistic infections (e.g. cytomegalovirus, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis and cryptosporidiosis) that arise because of the body’s failing immune system.

There is no cure for HIV, but with proper treatment called “antiretroviral therapy” (ART), it is possible to maintain a low viral count and live a nearly normal life expectancy of up to 50 years. The best way to prevent HIV/AIDS is by avoiding high-risk activities associated with disease transmission, such as unsafe sexual intercourse and needle sharing.

Causes and Risk Factors

1.      HIV originated from a variant strain that infected non-human primates in Africa.  It is believed that contact with blood from an infected monkey transmitted the virus to humans, where it mutated to HIV. HIV is a retrovirus; its genomic content is stored in the form of RNA that is reverse transcribed into DNA once in the host cell. The primary targets of HIV are human immune cells, such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells.

2.      HIV is transmitted between individuals via bodily fluids, and primarily through sexual contact. The virus can transmit when infected bodily fluids (blood, semen, seminal fluid, rectal fluids and vaginal fluids) from one person make contact with broken tissue or the mucus membrane on another person. HIV-infected pregnant women can pass on the virus to their infant during childbirth, or through breast milk. HIV is not spread by air/water, tear/saliva/sweat, hand-shaking or cohabitation with an infected individual. Activities that allow contact with another person’s bodily fluids and increase the chances of contracting HIV include:

3.      Sexual activity.  Unprotected anal, vaginal and oral sex with an infected partner allows HIV to pass from the blood, vaginal/rectal fluids or semen through sores or open skin. This risk is higher for those who have unprotected sex with multiple partners.

4.      Needle sharing. Sharing needles and other devices used for intravenous drug delivery carries a high risk for transmitting HIV. Traces of blood in the syringe or device from one user can pass to other users.

5.      Occupational hazards. Nurses, doctors and scientists who have frequent contact with human bodily fluids are considered high-risk. For example, an accidental needle prick while treating an infected patient can transmit HIV to the caregiver.

6.      Mother-to-infant contact. Expectant mothers with HIV can infect their child during childbirth or afterwards through breast milk. Routine prenatal screening and timely therapy can significantly lower this risk.

7.      Blood transfusions. Although blood banks screen donated blood for HIV and other diseases, there is a small risk of acquiring HIV during a blood transfusion.

Ø  Other STIs. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) often leave open sores in or around the mouth or genital areas. Anyone with an STI is more likely to have open sores, making them more susceptible to other infections like HIV.

Race. In the United States, African Americans are most affected by HIV/AIDS and considered a high-risk group. This increased burden is due to insufficient awareness, socioeconomic factors, and stigma about HIV testing.

Age/gender. Gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men - especially within the younger African American community - have the greatest risk of contracting HIV in the United States.

AIDS is caused by the gradual destruction of the immune system (CD4+ T cells) by HIV. The rate at which AIDS develops varies per person, but can happen faster without antiretroviral treatment. Without protection from the immune system, the body becomes a target for secondary infections, some cancers and other complications including kidney disease, neurological disorders and wasting syndrome.

Symptoms and Stages of Infection

Sometimes infection with HIV does not produce symptoms until the disease has progressed to AIDS; this could take 10 years for some people. Symptoms vary highly from one person to the next and depend on the stage of infection.

Early stage infection typically produces flu-like symptoms that appear within 2-4 weeks of infection. The body’s viral load (number of virus particles) is especially high at this stage, and therefore HIV testing for at-risk individuals is strongly recommended. Symptoms for early stage infection include:

                    i.            Fever

                  ii.            Headaches

                iii.            Muscle pain and fatigue

                iv.            Sore throat

                  v.            Swollen glands

                vi.            Rash.

During the clinical latency stage the virus “hides” in the immune cells and is minimally active. Although symptoms tend to disappear and viral load is low during latency, it is still possible to transmit HIV. The latency stage may last up to ten years without treatment, or for many decades with treatment.Once the infection progresses to AIDS, symptoms for secondary infections or other complications appear. These include:

                                i.            Significant weight loss

                              ii.            Fever and night sweat

                            iii.             Extreme fatigue

                            iv.            Chronic diarrhea

                              v.            Sores in the mouth or genital areas

                            vi.            Swelling of the lymph glands

                          vii.            Pneumonia

                        viii.            Red/brown/purple blotches on the skin

                            ix.            Neurological disorders (e.g. depression and memory loss).

                Diagnosis and Treatment

Ø   HIV is routinely diagnosed by testing for HIV antibodies in blood or saliva. It may take 3-6 months for HIV antibodies to accumulate to detectable amounts, which is why it is critical to use protection during sex. Following a positive diagnosis, tests for CD4+ T cell count, viral load and drug resistance are performed to determine the optimal treatment regimen. Additional tests may be required to address secondary infections or complications, such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, other STIs and kidney damage.

There is no cure for HIV, so the goals of therapy are to prevent viral replication, keep the immune system functioning, and minimize adverse reactions. The timing and method of treatment is decided based on the patient’s test results (CD4 count, viral load and drug resistance) and other existing conditions. It is generally recommended to begin treatment as early as possible in order to maintain a low viral count and prevent progression to AIDS. A typical treatment consists of a drug cocktail with at least three pills (representing different classes of antiviral drugs) taken daily, for life. With antiretroviral treatment, viral numbers drop to undetectable levels, but the body still carries and can transmit the virus.

           HIV drugs include:

«   Reverse transcriptase inhibitors. HIV uses its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to synthesize DNA from RNA. The function of this enzyme is required for viral replication in the host cell. Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) directly inhibit the activity of this enzyme. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) are faulty mimics of the building blocks used by the enzyme to synthesize DNA.

«  Protease inhibitors. HIV protease is another enzyme that is essential to the viral life cycle. Protease inhibitors are molecules that block the activity of this enzyme.

«  Integrase inhibitors. The integrase enzyme allows HIV to insert its genetic material into its host cells. Molecules that inhibit HIV integrase block this essential step.

«  Entry/fusion inhibitors. These drugs prevent the virus from attaching to and entering CD4+ T cells.

v              Prevention

1.      The most effective way to prevent HIV infection/transmission is by avoiding activities that allow exchange of bodily fluids with others. Anyone suspecting an infection should be tested for HIV. Following a positive HIV diagnosis, it is vital to contact existing and previous sexual partners who might have become infected.

2.      Safe sex. Using a new, un-compromised condom during sex prevents the transmission of virus through open sores or open skin.

3.      Occupational safety. Medical care providers and scientists who frequently treat patients or handle patient samples must use personal protection equipment and follow safety guidelines set by their respective institutions.

4.      Needle exchange programs.  These programs provide sterile needles to those who inject drugs.

5.      Prophylactics. This preventative option is available to at-risk groups who are not already infected with HIV. The combination drug Truvada was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 2012 for preventing HIV infection; Truvada is also used to treat HIV.

6.      Prenatal care. Pregnant women who have HIV must receive timely treatment in order to prevent infecting their baby.

7.      Circumcision.at 68% it can prevent HIV/AIDs.

SEXUAL TRANSMISSION INFECTIONs and SEXUAL TRANSMISSION DISEASES ( STIs or STDs)

Sexually transmitted infections (also known as STIs, or STDs for 'sexually transmitted diseases,' or VD for 'venereal diseases') are infections that are commonly/have a high probability of being spread from person to person through sexual contact. The term STI is broader and more encompassing because some infections are ..

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

What’s the difference between STIs and STDs?

 Sexually transmitted infections (also known as STIs, or STDs for ‘sexually transmitted diseases,’ or VD for ‘venereal diseases’) are infections that are commonly/have a high probability of being spread from person to person through sexual contact. The term STI is broader and more encompassing because some infections are curable and may not cause any symptoms. If the infection results in altering the typical function of the body, it is then called a disease. So that’s why you may hear people say STIs – it’s technically more accurate and also reminds people that there are often no symptoms so it’s important to get tested.

What counts as “sexual contact?”

We are almost certain that if we were to interview students on campus, every person would have a slightly different definition of what they considered “sex” or “sexual contact” and that’s OK! But here in the Health Center we want to be clear that when it comes to STIs, we define sexual contact as “any sexual behavior in which an infection can be passed.” Yes, this includes oral, anal, and vaginal sex as well as the use of sexual toys, such as vibrators. For some STIs like Herpes, Syphilis, and HPV – no penetration needs to occur or fluid needs to be exchanged in order for the infection to be passed because these infections are transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, not fluid.

So go ahead and keep your own definitions for “sex” but keep in mind that your definition may be excluding some behaviors that still pose a risk for infection and have specific ways that they can be made safer.

What’s the most common symptom of an STI?

Not having any symptoms! Our bodies are so incredible that our immune system tries to protect us from feeling uncomfortable symptoms. Most of the time, this is a good thing! When it comes to STIs, it could be working against us. If we don’t have symptoms and aren’t routinely getting tested, we won’t know our status. If we have an infection and don’t know our status, we could unknowingly be passing it onto other partners and/or the infection could be doing some significant harm to our bodies. Some of the best tools for prevention and early detection are communicating with partners about their STI status, routine testing, and safer sex practices that work for our lives. 

      When should I get tested?

If you are “sexually active” (keep in mind our Health Center definition of “any sexual contact in which an infection could be passed, including oral, anal, vaginal sex as well as skin-to-skin contact and the sharing of sex toys”) it is recommended to get tested every six months or in-between sexual partners –whichever comes first. Some people feel the need to be tested on a more frequent basis due to multiple sex partners, minimal condom use, unknown STI status of recent partners, or general concern with their potential risk. Although regular testing will help early STI diagnosis, our Sexual Health Coordinator would be happy to speak with about your concerns and help develop a personalized risk reduction. This plan can help maximize what you are looking for out of your sexual experiences and minimize the anxiety or worry about infection. If you have questions about testing or want to speak with our Sexual Health Coordinator,.

Effects of diseases

By killing off mainly young adults, AIDS seriously weakens the taxable population, reducing the resources available for public expenditures such as education and health services not related to AIDS resulting in increasing pressure for the state's finances and slower growth of the economy. This results in a slower growth of the tax base, an effect that will be reinforced if there are growing expenditures on treating the sick, training (to replace sick workers), sick pay and caring for AIDS orphans. This is especially true if the sharp increase in adult mortality shifts the responsibility and blame from the family to the government in caring for these orphans. [2]

On the level of the household, AIDS results in both the loss of income and increased spending on healthcare by the household. The income effects of this led to spending reduction as well as a substitution effect away from education and towards healthcare and funeral spending. A study in Côte d'Ivoire showed that households with an HIV/AIDS patient spent twice as much on medical expenses as other households. [4]

With economic stimulus from the government, however, HIV/AIDS can be fought through the economy. With some money, HIV/AIDS patients will have to worry less about getting enough food and shelter and more about fighting their disease. However, if economic conditions aren't good, a person with HIV/AIDS may decide to become a sex trade worker to earn more money. As a result, more people become infected with HIV/AIDS.

Care for People Living with HIV/AIDS (Updated February 2008)

How Can I Help Someone Who Has Been Newly Diagnosed with HIV?

There are many things that you can do to help a friend or loved one who has been recently diagnosed with HIV:

Talk. Be available to have open, honest conversations about HIV. Follow the lead of the person who is diagnosed with HIV. They may not always want to talk about it, or may not be ready. They may want to connect with you in the same ways they did before being diagnosed. Do things you did together before their diagnosis; talk about things you talked about before their diagnosis. Show them that you see them as the same person and that they are more than their diagnosis.

Listen. Being diagnosed with HIV is life-changing news. Listen to your loved one and offer your support. Reassure them that HIV is a manageable health condition. There are medicines that can treat HIV and help them stay healthy.

Learn. Educate yourself about HIV: what it is, how it is transmitted, how it is treated, and how people can stay healthy while living with HIV. Having a solid understanding of HIV is a big step forward in supporting your loved one. This website is a good place to begin to familiarize yourself with HIV. Have these resources available for your newly diagnosed friend if they want them. Knowledge is empowering, but keep in mind that your friend may not want the information right away.

Encourage treatment. Some people who are recently diagnosed may find it hard to take that first step to HIV treatment. Your support and assistance may be helpful. By getting linked to HIV medical care early, starting treatment with HIV medication (called antiretroviral therapy or ART), adhering to medication, and staying in care, people with HIV can keep the virus under control, and prevent their HIV infection from progressing to AIDS. HIV treatment is recommending for all people with HIV and should be started as soon as possible after diagnosis. Encourage your friend or loved one to see a doctor and start HIV treatment as soon as possible. If they do not have an HIV care provider, you can help them find one. There are programs that can provide HIV medical care or help with paying for HIV medications. Use HIV. god’s HIV Testing Sites & Care Services Locator to find a provider.

Support medication adherence. It is important for people living with HIV to take their HIV medication every day, exactly as prescribed. Ask your loved one what you can do to support them in establishing a medication routine and sticking to it. Also ask what other needs they might have and how you can help them stay healthy. Learn more about treatment adherence.

Get support. Take care of yourself and get support if you need it. Turn to others for any questions, concerns, or anxieties you may have, so that the person who is diagnosed can focus on taking care of their own health.

If you are the sexual partner of someone who has been diagnosed with HIV, you should also get tested so that you know your own HIV status. If you test negative, talk to your healthcare provider about Prep (pre-exposure prophylaxis), taking HIV medicine daily to prevent HIV infection. Prep  is recommended for people at high risk of HIV infection, including those who are in a long-term relationship with a partner who has HIV. If you test positive, get connected to HIV treatment and car

  CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Classification is the process of grouping  or sorting living organisms into different groups according to their similarities and differences .living organisms are sorting into kingdoms , phylum , class, order , genes and species.

Classification: The scientific method of dividing organisms into smaller and larger groups, on basis of their similarities.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Binomial nomenclature is used to name an organism, where the first word beginning with a capital is the genus of the organism and the second word beginning with lower-case letter is the species of the organism. The name must be in italics and in Latin, which was the major language of arts and sciences in the 18th century. The scientific name can be also abbreviated, where the genus is shortened to only its first letter followed by a period. In our example, Lepus Europeans would become L. Europeans.

Taxonomy and binomial nomenclature are both specific methods of classifying an organism. They help to eliminate problems, such as mistaken identity and false assumptions, caused by common names. An example of the former is the fact that a North American robin is quite different from the English robin. An example of the latter is the comparison between crayfish and catfish, where one might believe that they both are fish when in fact, they are quite different.

Nomenclature is concerned with the assignment of names to taxonomic groups in agreement with published rules. To study for a test these are the best words to know taxonomist, biologist, chemist, geologist, unicellular, multicellular, bilateral symmetry, radial symmetry, chlorophyll, photosynthesis, respiration, reproduction, vertebrates, endoskeleton, exoskeleton, consumers, decomposers, heterotroph, autotroph, vascular, non-vascular. These are all part of classifying things.

Taxonomy (sometimes called "systematics") is the science of classifying organisms. The Linnea system of classification, used for both plants and animals, was developed more than two centuries ago by the great Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (born Carl von Linen). It is a hierarchical system -- that is, each organism belongs to a series of ranked taxonomic categories, such as a subspecies, species, genus, family, etc. At any rank (level) in the hierarchy any organism can belong to only one taxon, or taxonomic group. For instance, the Yellow-romped Warbler can be a member of only one genus and one class. Each taxon is given a formal, Latinized name that is recognized by scientists around the world. Nomenclature is a formal system of names used to label taxonomic groups.

Birds compose the class Aves, which is in the phylum Chordata (Chordata also includes mammals, reptiles, fishes, and tunicates -- everything with an internal skeletal rod called a "notochord," which in vertebrates is enclosed in cartilage or within a backbone). The living (no fossil) members of the class Aves are placed into more than two dozen orders, such as the Passeriformes (perching birds), Pisiforms (woodpeckers, etc.), Columbiformes  (pigeons and doves), Procellariforms (albatrosses, petrels, etc.), Apodiformes (swifts and hummingbirds), and so on. The orders are divided into about 160 families -- an average 6-7 families per order. Family names can be recognized because they all end in "idea." For example, in the order Passeriformes are such families as the Tyrannical (the tyrant flycatchers), the Laminae (the shrikes), and the Emberizidae, a large family that includes, among others, the wood warblers, sparrows, blackbirds, and orioles.

Families, in turn, are divided into subfamilies, with names ending in "inane." The wood warblers make up the subfamily Pauline and the black-birds and orioles are the Cisternae. Within subfamilies, tribes (name ending "ink") are often recognized: blackbirds are the Agelaiini and orioles the Interim within the Icterinae. The next commonly used category is the genus: the Yellow-romped Warbler is in the genus Dendroica, along with more than two dozen very similar species. Its Latinized specific name is Dendroica coronate, made up of the name of the genus combined with a trivial name to distinguish it from congeners (other members of the same genus).

Because the Linnea system features a two-part specific name, it is often referred to as a system of "binomial nomenclature." Often, as in this book, the name of the author who first described and named the species in the scientific literature is added to the specific name -- thus, Dendroica coronate (Linnaeus). Traditionally, generic and specific names are set in italic type, and in some works the name of the author is put in parentheses if he or she originally placed the species in a different genus. Thus if you find the Yellow-romped Warbler listed as Dendroica coronate (Linnaeus), it is because Linnaeus originally placed it in the genus Motacilla, not Dendroica. We have not followed this procedure, since most bird species have long since been moved from their original genera as the taxonomic system has been refined.

Finally, subspecies may be recognized with trinomial nomenclature -- by adding a third name to the specific name. Thus the eastern Yellow-romped Warbler (formerly the Myrtle Warbler) is Dendroica coronate Linnaeus, and the western Yellow-romped Warbler (formerly Audubon's Warbler) is Dendroica coronate Audubon Townsend.

The taxonomic-nomenclatural system is a device for communicating about the complexly interrelated products of evolution. Generally, it works well, even though many aspects of it are arbitrary. For example, whether Dendroica is distinct enough to be recognized as a full genus, or should be merged with Vermiform and Paula is not self-evident, and ornithological taxonomists disagree on it. Some taxonomists are "lumbers" and would like to combine the three; others are "splitters" and wish to keep them separate. Furthermore, as new studies of the relationships of various higher categories are published, scientists must modify the taxonomic system, and as a result names of taxonomic groups may change, as may the organisms included in them. For example, recent DNA-DNA hybridization studies have led some scientists to conclude that the Emberizidae should be considered a subfamily (Emberizinae) of the family Fringillidae, the wood warblers a tribe (Pauline) of that subfamily, and both the orioles and blackbirds combined in yet another ember zine tribe, citrine, with the tribal name Agelaiini disappearing.

Changes in platinized specific names are inevitable as knowledge about birds increases, and most should simply be accepted as the price of progress. Common names, at least within North America, show more stability and facilitate regional communication. But for worldwide communication, the level on which professional ornithologists often operate, the latinized names are essential. One need only note that the "robin" in North America is Turdus migratorius, while in England it is Erithacus rubicula (which, in turn, is "roodborst" in Holland, "rotkehlchen" in Germany, "rödhake" in Switzerland, and "rougegorge" in France). An American birdwatcher told by a traveling friend returning from Europe that she had added the "Ring Ouzel" and "Blackbird" to her life list might be left pretty much in the dark. But if the American knew that those birds were Turdus torquatus and Turdus morula, he or she would at least know that both were sizable thrushes

Living Things According to Their Similarities and Differences

Group living things according to their similarities and differences

Activity 1

Study the external features of the following organisms: Lizard, sugar cane plant, maize plant, shark, Tilapia, cactus plant, bat, cockroach, butterfly, hen, goat, toad, frog, spider and orange plant

Activity 2

Sort out the above organisms into plants and animals

Classify the animals on the following basis

Those with wings and those without wings

Those with tails and those without tails

Those with antennae and those without antennae

Terrestrial and aquatic organisms

IMPORTANCES OF CLSSIFICATION

The following are importance of classification

1.      Classification makes the study of living things easy

2.      Classification makes communication easy among biologists from different parts of the world

3.      It provides good organized system in which a newly identified organism can be easily fitted in future.

4.      It makes it easier to identify organisms

5.      It can be used to predict characteristics that are present in the members of the same group.

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION

·          Types of Classification Systems and Their Differences. There are two types of classification

1.      Artificial classification

2.      Natural classification

a.       Artificial classification ;  An artificial classification is based on one or a few easily observable characteristics and usually designed for practical purpose with an emphasis on convenience and simplicity. In this type of classification, unrelated organisms are often placed in the same group while closely related organisms are often placed in different groups. Linnaeus included all

Linnaeus included all worm-like organisms in a single group, the vermes. This included wide a range of animals as from nematodes, earthworms to snakes. This was an artificial classification since it did not consider natural relationships such as the fact that snakes have backbones and earthworms do not have. Thus, snakes have more features in common with vertebrates than with worms.

Bats and birds would be placed in the same group because all have the ability to fly since they posses wings. But bats share many features with mammals. They have features like hair, mammary glands, sweat glands and different types of teeth which are characteristics of mammals. Therefore, bats are more related to mammals than birds. Natural

a.       Natural system of classification This  type of classification system tries to use natural relationships between organisms. It considers many features in common including internal as well as external features. Similarity of embryology, morphology, anatomy, biochemistry cell, structure and behavior are all considered relevant. It is based on evolutionary relationship in which organisms belonging to the same group are believed to have a common ancestor.

Characteristic features which show homology are distinguish hedfrom those which show analogy. Example the fore limbs of mammals, whales, birds and bats have the same basic pattern and similar bone arrangement, i.e. homologous. This suggests that these organisms are coming from the same ancestor and that can be placed in the same group.

The wings of birds and grasshoppers are analogous. The wings of birds have internal skeletons while the wings of grasshoppers do not have bones but they perform similar function. These organisms cannot be placed in the same group since they are different in many ways.

       ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH TYPE OF CLASSICATION SYSTEM

Advantages of artificial system of classification

1.      It is easy to classify organisms since it is based on few observable characteristics.

2.      It does not take much time to classify organisms based on this system (not time consuming).

3.      It does not need expertise (even a layman can do).

4.      It is relatively stable i.e. not easily changing from time to time.

Disadvantages of artificial system of classification

1.      It tends to place closely related organisms into different groups instead of being grouped together e.g. a bat can be placed in a group of birds instead of mammals.

2.      Different or unrelated organisms may be placed in the same group e.g. bats placed in a group of birds, worms placed with snakes in the same group

3.      The system does not provide enough information about its members.

4.      It is difficult to incorporate additional information.

 Advantages of natural system of classification

1.      Closely related organisms are placed in the same group.

2.      It reflects evolutionary relationships.

3.      Unrelated organisms cannot be placed in the same group.

4.      It makes it easy to incorporate additional information.

Disadvantages of natural system of classification

1.      It is difficult since it considers many features.

2.      It requires expertise i.e. more knowledge about an organism.

3.      It is time consuming.

4.      It is relatively unstable i.e. it changes from time to time.

5.      It is more expensive since more data are required.

      The following are differences between natural and artificial classification: -

Natural classification	Artificial classification
Artificial classification	Natural classification
(i) Considers few features in common	Considers many features in common
(ii) Does not reflect on evolutionary	Reflects on evolutionary relationships
(iii) It is easy to classify	It is difficult to classify
(iv) Not time consuming	It is time consuming
(v) Does not require expertise	Requires expertise
(vi) New information cannot be added	New information can be added.

Practical Activities of Classifying Living Things According to Artificial and Natural Classification Systems

Carry out practical activities of classifying living things according to artificial and natural classification systems

Activity 3

Collect the under named organisms and keenly examine their external and internal features: Bat, grasshopper, rat, earthworm, fish, ascaris, cockroach, lizard, hen, hawk, and toad.

Activity 4

Classify the organisms using artificial classification system.

Activity 5

Classify the organisms using natural classification system

MAJOR GROUPS CLASSIFICATION

The major groups of living things are the kingdoms. Previously, living things were categorized into two main groups; plantae and animalia kingdom. But this classification caused difficulties since some organisms seemed to posses some of the characteristics of both groups. For example, euglena is capable of feeding like an animal and locomote like an animal. Therefore, it is placed in animalia kingdom. But the same euglena has chlorophyll and it is capable of manufacturing its own food. Therefore, it should also be placed in plantae kingdom. Such an organism does not seem to fit exactly in Animalia or plantae kingdom. Thus, euglenas are assigned in the major group of their own.

           FIVE GROUPS OF CLASSIFICATION (KINGDOMS)

«  Kingdom monera

«  Kingdom protoctista

«  Kingdom fungi

«  Kingdom plantae

«  Kingdom Animalia

   RANKS OF CLASSIFICATION

In the millions of organisms found on earth some are more similar while others are less similar. For example, all human beings resemble each other more closely than they resemble with the chimpanzees. Humans have more resemblance with chimpanzee than cats and dogs, and more like dogs than birds. Therefore when classifying the organisms, groups are established which are called ranks or taxa.

There are seven ranks of classification

Kingdom

Phylum/division

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

The highest rank of classification is the kingdom. The lowest rank of classification is the species. Every known organism has particular place in each group.

Kingdom- this is the highest rank (taxon). It comprises of several related taxa. It comprises of many organisms than any other taxon.

Phylum/division–  this is the second largest rank of classification. It consists of several closely related classes.

Class - members or this group have more characteristics in common than do members of division or phylum.

Order- it consists of groups that are more alike than those in a class.

Family –this is made up of groups that are more alike than those in the order. Wolves and cats are both in the order Carnivore but wolves are in the family Canidae while cats belong to the family Felidae.

Genus –  it consists of very similar species but members of different species cannot breed one another.

Species –  Species can be defined as a group of closely related organisms which are capable of interbreeding and produce fertile offspring.

It is the basic unit of scientific classification. Organisms that need to be placed in the same species must have the following characteristics:

Must have many features in common.

Must be able to breed one another to produce fertile offspring.

Must be distinct and different from other organisms.

N.B: The term division is used by botanists instead of phylum when classifying plants or organisms related to plants.

Classification of some members of animals

Human            Leopard               Domestic                cat

Kingdom         Animalia         Animalia          Animalia

Phylum            Chordata         Chordata         Chordata

Class              Mammalia         Mammalia       Mammalia

Order              Primates             Carnivore.     Carnivore

Family             Hominidae      Felidae                Felidae

Genus               Homo             Panthera            Felis

Species            sapiens pads.                           Cetus

Scientific naming of living organisms

The scientific process of naming organisms is called nomen- clature. Biological nomenclature is based on the binomial system (double naming system) pioneered by the work of a Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707).

Biologists assign scientific names to organisms so as to avoid confusion among themselves since scientists from different countries use different languages. The scientific names are uniform in all languages.

Latin language is used in assigning the scientific name because it is an official language and that this language is no longer subject to changes; it is considered to be a dead language hence names once given remain unchanged.

Ø   Rules of binomial nomenclature

1.      Scientific names of organisms must be in Latin language and if the names are derived from other languages, they must be Latinized.

2.      A scientific name of an organism has two parts, genus name and species name.

3.      A genus name always starts with a capital letter and a species name follows with a small letter.

4.      ,A scientific name must be written in italics or underlined if hand written.

5.      A specific name is sometimes accompanied with the name of the author who first described and named the organism.

6.      When an organism is known by several names, the valid name is the one which was established after the work of Linnaeus.

Example 1

Examples of scientific names

Human being :Homo sapiens

Homo is the generic name and sapiens is the specific name.

Other examples of organisms with their scientific names:-

Common name	Scientific name	Generic names
Earthworm	Lumbricus	terrestris
Cockroach	Periplaneta	americana
Amoeba	Amoeba	proteus
Coffee	Coffea	arabica
Maize	Zea	mays
Bean	Phaseolus	vulgaris
Domestic cat	Felis	cactus
Sisal	Agave	sisalana
Ashok tree	Polyanthia	longifolia
Housefly	Musca	domestica
Neem tree	Azadirachta	indica
Flamboyant (Christmas tree)	Delonix	regia
Tropical almond (mkungu)	Terminalia	catapa

Practical Activities of Grouping Organisms into their Respective Major Groups

Carryout practical activities of grouping organisms into their respective major groups

Activity 6

Group Organisms into their Respective Major Groups

Viruses

Viruses were discovered by a Russian botanist D. I. Ivanovsky and a Dutchman Beijerink.In 1852 Ivanovsky prepared an infectious extract from tobacco plants that were suffering from mosaic disease. When the extract was passed through a filter able to prevent the passage of bacteria, the filtered fluid was still infectious. 1898 Beijerink gave the name “virus” (in Latin means, “poison”) to describe the infectious nature of certain filtered plant fluids.

                General and Distinctive Features of Viruses

                Characteristics of Viruses

1.      They are the smallest living organisms ranging from 20-30nm. On average, they are about 50times smaller than bacteria.

2.      Viruses do not have cellular structures, which mean that they lack certain important organelles like nucleus, cytoplasm, golgi bodies, etc.

3.      They can only reproduce inside the living cells hence they are parasitic.

4.      They have a simple structure consisting of either DNA or RNA but not both, surrounded by a protein or lipoprotein coat.

5.      They can be described as living or non-living.

6.      They are highly specific to their hosts i.e. each virus recognizes only certain types of cells.

7.      Viruses are capable of replicating themselves only when they are inside the host cell.

8.      Viruses as living things

9.      They possess genetic material (RNA or DNA).

10.  They reproduce when they are in the host cell (replication).

11.  They are capable of identifying their hosts and attack them.

12.  They can undergo mutation (they mutate) i.e. they undergo different changes in shape.

13.  Like other parasites, they are specific to host.

14.  Viruses as non-living things

15.  They can crystallize outside the host.

16.  They are metabolically inert in isolation.

17.  They are non-cellular i.e. they lack cell organelles.

18.  They do not perform necessary life processes such as respiration, excretion nutrition etc.

The Structure of Viruses

 Figure: virus structure.

Describe the structure of viruses

Generally viruses have a very simple structure consisting of the following:

RNA or DNA which may be single stranded or double stranded. They form a structure called core.

A protective coat of protein surrounding the core called capsid.

A nucleocapsid which is a combined structure of core and capsid.

Envelope – an additional layer of lipoprotein layer around the capsid.

Capsids are made up of identical repeating units known as capsomeres.

Bacteriophage

Bacteriophage is a virus that attacks and kills bacteria. Some of them have head with a tail sheath.

Bacteriophage

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF VIRUSES

Ø  Advantages of viruses

                    i.            Viruses are used in developing vaccines, for example, vaccines for measles, polio and rubella are made from viruses that have been attenuated (weakened).

                  ii.            Viruses are used as biological weapons to kill organisms.

                iii.            They are used as vectors in genetic engineering to transfer genes from one organism to another for improving or treating the defective genes.

                iv.            Bacteriophages are viruses that attack bacteria and hence they help in controlling infections and diseases.

                  v.            Viruses are used as biological weapons in wars and in biological pest control.

Ø        Disadvantages of viruses

Most viruses cause diseases to both plants and animals. Plant disease such tomato mosaic, cassava mosaic and tobacco mosaic; and animal diseases e.g. measles, small pox, poliomyelitis and yellow fever are caused by viruses.

Kingdom Monera

This kingdom is made up of organisms known as bacteria (singular: bacterium). They are the most ancient and smallest organisms with a cellular structure. They are mainly single celled. Bacteria occupy many environments such as soil, dust, water and in the bodies of plants and animals

Some bacteria are found in hot springs where temperatures are 78ºC or more. Others can withstand very low temperatures. Some are found in very deep cracks in the ocean floor, at very high temperatures, about 360ºC (extreme thermophiles).

Structure of bacteria

General and Distinctive Features of the Kingdom Monera

General characteristics of the kingdom monera

                    i.            They are mainly unicellular and very small.

                  ii.            They are all prokaryotic (nucleus not bound by membrane)

                iii.            They reproduce by binary fission.

                iv.            Some members of the kingdom are autotrophs while others are heterotrophs

                  v.            They have cell wall made up of protein material and sometimes lipids.

                vi.            Some bacteria form spores during adverse conditions i.e. extreme conditions e.g. high or low temperatures, drought etc. The spores allow them to survive as they have very thick resistant walls.

              vii.            Some are aerobes while others are anaerobes.

            viii.            The genetic material (DNA) is scattered in the cytoplasm and they lack internal membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi bodies etc.

.

Structures of the Representative Organisms of the Kingdom Monera

General structure of the bacteria

                    i.            Bacteria have strong and rigid cell walls due to the presence of murein. The wall prevents the cell from bursting when it absorbs much water (as a result of osmosis).

                  ii.            Bacterial cells are bounded by partially permeable membranes.

                iii.            Bacteria possess capsules which are slimy or gummy. They have flagella which aid motility of the bacteria. Motile bacteria can move in response to a certain stimulus i.e. tactic movement. Flagella can easily be seen by electron microscope.

                iv.            They have small self replicating circle of extra DNA called a plasmid.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Bacteria(kingdom monera)

Bacteria are simple organisms; despite being simple they are useful in many ways animals and plants and also to humans in many ways. The advantages and disadvantages of bacteria are as follows:

Ø  Advantages of Bacteria:

1.      Bacteria are the only organisms that can fix atmospheric nitrogen. Thus, they are essential to all living forms on earth.

2.      Bacteria are the major class of decomposers. They decompose dead plants and animals into their basic elements.

3.      Bacteria in the guts of cows and other animals help them breakdown the cellulose of the plants that they feed on.

4.      Bacteria are the major reason for causing fermentation of milk into curd and wine into vinegar.

5.      In biotechnology bacteria are used in many ways especially to manufacture proteins.

6.      Bacteria can be easily modified genetically and are use in gene transfer techniques.

7.      Bacteria are advantageous both economically and environmentally as they can occupy a wide variety of habitats and extreme climatic conditions and the bacterial enzymes can function in a wide range of pH and temperature.

8.      Bacteria are beneficial to clean up oil spills by the process of bioremediation.

9.      Bacteria can degrade a variety of organic compounds and so they can be used in processing waste and bioremediation.

10.  Bacteria are also used for bioremediation process of toxic wastes from industries.

11.  In chemical industries bacteria are used for production of pure chemicals.

12.  In biological pest control, bacteria are used instead of pesticides.

13.  Bacteria re bioengineered for the production of proteins like insulin, growth hormones and also antibodies.

Ø  Disadvantages of Bacteria:

1.      Bacteria cause diseases and infection.

2.      When bacteria enter the host body, it lowers the immune system of the body which makes path to various bacteria into the body.

3.      Some bacterial infections like Pneumonia can sometimes cause death.

4.      Bacterial infections can breakdown skin and organs. Bacteria can cause diseases in several plants and animals also man, as most of the bacteria have parasitic mode of nutrition.

5.      Bacteria produce foul smell due to their decomposing products.

6.      Some plant diseases caused by bacteria are fire blight of apples, crown gall disease of crops, etc.

7.      Some bacterial diseases in man are diphtheria, leprosy, tetanus, syphilis, plague, cholera, anthrax, etc.

8.      Diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid  are water borne disease. Plague and tuberculosis are air borne disease, tetanus is contracted by wounds. Syphilis is a bacterial disease caused by sexual contact.

  Advantages of Five Kingdom Classification

The main advantages of five kingdom classification are as follows:

1.      Prokaryotes differ from all other living organisms in their cellular structure, physiology, biochemical and reproduction process. Prokaryotes have got a separate place as kingdom Monera in five kingdom classification.

2.      Unicellular and multi cellular organisms are kept separate.

3.      Fungi are placed in a separate kingdom as their mode of nutrition differs from all other plants.

4.      Autotrophs and heterotrophs are placed in separate groups.

5.      Five kingdom classification is more natural than two kingdom classification.

6.      Five kingdom classification is based on bio composition and mode of nutrition, thus it shows series of evolution.

Disadvantages of Five Kingdom Classification

The shortcomings of five kingdom classification are:

1.      Unicellular algae are kept in kingdom Protista, whereas algae like multicellular organisms are kept in kingdom Plantae. But similar organisms must be put together.

2.      There is diversity in kingdom Protista. Dissimilar organisms must not be kept in same group.

3.      All organisms other than menora shows that they are polyphyletic in origin. It is a great shortcoming of five kingdom classification.

4.      There is no place for viruses in five kingdom classification.

5.      Similar organisms are kept far from each other. For example, unicellular and multi cellular algae.

Conclusion

There are many advantages and disadvantages of both two kingdom classification and five kingdom classification. But Five kingdom classification is very popular and accepted by all scientists.

Kingdom Protista

All single celled organisms are placed under the Kingdom Protista. The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1886. This kingdom forms a link between other kingdoms of plants, animals and fungi.  Protista represent an important step in early evolution. The first protists evolved probably 1.7 billion years ago. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic in nature. It is a very large group comprising of at least 16 phyla. Many protists like algae are the primary producers in the aquatic ecosystem, some protists are responsible for serious human diseases like malaria and sleeping sickness.

Protista

Kingdom Protista Definition

Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms. Protists are unicellular, some are colonial or multicellular, they do not have specialized tissue organization. The simple cellular organization distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes. The cell body of the protists contain have a nucleus which is well defined and membrane bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia for locomotion. Reproduction in protists is both asexual and sexual. They live in any environment that contains water.

Characteristics of Kingdom Protista

General characteristics of Kingdom Protista are as follows:

1.      They are simple eukaryotic organisms.

2.      Most of the organisms are unicellular, some are colonial and some are multicellular like algae.

3.      Most of the protists live in water, some in moist soil or even the body of human and plants.

4.      These organisms are eukaryotic,  since they have a membrane bound nucleus and endomembrane systems.

5.      They have mitochondria for cellular respiration and some have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

6.      Nuclei of protists contain multiple DNA strands, the number of nucleotides are significantly less than complex eukaryotes.

7.      Movement is often by flagella or cilia.

8.      Protists are multicellular organisms, they are not a plant, animal or fungus.

9.      Respiration - cellular respiration is primarily aerobic process, but some living in mud below ponds or in digestive tracts of animals Ares strict facultative anaerobes.

10.  Nutrition - they can be both heterotrophic or autotrophic.

11.  Flagellates are filter feeding, some protists feed by the process of endocytosis (formation of food vacuole by engulfing a bacteria and extending their cell membrane).

12.  Reproduction - some species have complex life cycle involving multiple organisms. Example: Plasmodium. Some reproduce sexually and others asexually.

13.  They can reproduce by mitosis and some are capable of meiosis for sexual reproduction.

14.  They form cysts in adverse conditions.

15.  Some protists are pathogens of both animals and plants. Example: Plasmodium falciparum causes malaria in humans.

16.  Protists are major component of plankton.

Kingdom Protista Classification

Kingdom Protista are categorized into two taxon’s:

a.       Protozoans - animal-like single-celled organisms.

b.      Algae - plant-like single or multi-celled organisms.

Animal-like Protists - PROTOZOANS

Protists that have resemblance to animals are known as protozoans. They in moist and watery environments. The characteristics similar to animals are - their ability to move and their inability to produce their own food (heterotrophs). They differ from animals being unicellular while animals are multicellular.

Protozoans are classified on the way they move into four categories:

                    i.            Sacordinians - move using pseudopod.

                  ii.            Zooflagellates - move using flagella.

                iii.            Ciliaphorans - move using cilia.

                iv.            Sporozoans - forms spores.

phylum of kingdom protista

Phylum Sarcodina - The movement in sarcodinians is by extending lobes of cytoplasm known as pseudopodia. The pseudopoda is used for movement and feeding. During the formation of the pseudopodia the cytoplasm streams into the lobe causing the lobe to 'ooze' and grow. Because of this the peudopodians have a 'blob like appearance. Example: Amoeba, Foraminiferans.

Amoeba Sarcodina

Phylum Mastigophora (Zooflagellata) - These protozoans move with the help of flagella. Most of them are parasitic. Many flagellates are seen in the intestine of humans, in termites and other animals, some flagellates are harmful. Example: Trypanosoma gambiense causes sleeping sickness in cattle and human.

Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates) - Protozoans of this phylum move with hair like structures called cilia. The cilia stick out of their cells. The movement of cilia is paddle like, it sways back and forth for movement and fast beating of the cilia causes movement of the organism. The cilia is also used to sweep food particles into the organism. Example: Paramecium - It is a ciliate protozoan found in fresh water and ponds. It commonly known as the slipper animal-cule.

Paramoecium Ciliata

Phylum Sporozoa - All members of this phylum are non-motile and parasitic. They forms spores and hence the name sporozoa. They lack locomotory structures and they are carried  in their hosts by their body fluids. Many sporozoans causes serious diseases in humans. Example: Plasmodium - this parasite causes malaria in humans.

Plant-like Protists - ALGAE

Plant-like protists have chlorophyll like that in plants. The green substance in their cells enable them to make food bu photosynthesis. They produce and release oxygen like the plants. It is believed to be the most supply of oxygen on Earth is from the plant-like protists. The plant-like protists are the major food source and primary producers for water organisms.

Phylum Chlorophyta (Green Algae) - The green algae include unicellular and multicellular algae. They are mostly fresh water. Body is sheet-like thallus. They have cell walls made of cellulose and pectin. Food is reserve starch which is stored in pyrenoids. Example: Spirogyra - it is a unicellular green alga, it grows as a green thread or filament.

Green Algae

Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae) - Red algae are mostly large and multicellular. They grow in oceans. The algae 'Nori' and Gelidium are used as food, in parts of Asia. Carragean and agar are glue-like substances in red-a;gae. Agar is used as a medium used for growing bacteria and other organisms under laboratory conditions. Agar is also used to make gelatin capsules. and a base for cosmetics. Carragean is used as a stabilizer and thickener in dairy products. It is also used to give toothpaste its creamy texture.

Red Algae

Phylum Phaeophyta (Brown Algae) - Brown algae are multicellular. They grow on rocks in shallow water of the sea. Large brown algae are called kelps. Kelps may grow densely in the sea and form kelp forests. They form important food sources for fish and invertebrates. The brown algae growing on rocks are known as rockweed. Example of rockweed is Sargassum. Algin is a substance derived from some algae which is used in making ice cream, lotion and plastics.

Brown Algae

Phylum Chrysophyta (Golden algae) - 'Chryso' means 'color of gold'. There are three types of golden-algae: yellow-green algae, golden brown algae, diatoms. Diatoms are the most abundant  and are found in seawater and freshwater habitats. The shell of diatoms are made of silica. They are major source of food to may aquatic organisms. The shells of fossil diatoms form thick deposits on the sea floor known as 'diatomaceous earth'. It is used as water filters, abrasive and to add sparkling to products such as paint and fingernail polish.

Golden Algae

Phylum Pyrrophyta (Fire Algae) - It contains of species of one-celled algae called dinoflagellate which means 'spinning swimmers'. They store food in the form of starch and oils. The red color is due to chlorophyll a and c and xanthophylls. These organisms have ability of bioluminescence. Almost all species like in marine water. Some species causes the 'red tide phenomenon'. The dinoflagellates causing red tides are known as Gonyaulax, which contain a neurotoxin and are poisonous to marine fauna.

Marine Dinoflagellates

Fungus-like Protists

Slime Molds - Slime molds are saprophytic protists. They are very bright in appearance. They live in moist soil, decaying plants and trees. They are single-celled organisms. During favorable condition they form multicellular aggregations called plasmodium. During unfavorable conditions, plasmodia differentiate to form fruiting bodies bearing spores at the tip. These spores posses resistant true walls, which help in survival for a long time during adverse conditions. These spores disperse by air currents.

Slime Molds

Kingdom Protista Examples

Few well known examples are follows:

1.      Green algae - Spirogyra, Ulva, Chlamydomonas, Volvox.

2.      Red algae - Porphyra, Rotalgen.

3.      Brown algae - Laminaria, Nereocystis.

4.      Water molds - Saprolegnia.

5.      Phylum Ciliata - Paramecium, Vorticella.

6.      Phylum Dinoflagellata - Ceratium, Gonyaulax.

7.      Phylum Mastigophora - Trypanosoma, Trichonympha.

8.      Phylum Sarcodina - Amoeba.

  

Economic Importance of Protists

·                       Protists are useful in the following manners:

                    i.            Source of food - Some protists like kelps are edible.

                  ii.            Source of commercial products - Marine protists are source of useful substances like algin, agar, carragean and antiseptics.

                iii.            Primary producer of aquatic ecosystem - Many protists are primary producers, they play a basic role in food cahins, providing food and oxygen.

                iv.            Source of medicines - Sodium laminaria sulphate, Fucoidin, Heparin are algal products used as blood coagulants. Lyngbya produces an anti-cancer compound.

                  v.            Source of mineral - Kelps are rich in sodium, potassium, iodine etc, they are good source of minerals.

                vi.            Biological research - They are used in biological research, e.g., Chlorella is unicellular, non-motile alga.

              vii.            Pathogens - Thhese ar pathogenic organisms and may cause many disease in man and also in fruits and vegetables it causes late blight potatoes and causes disease in some fishes.
 
                   Prepared by: Dr. France
                   Viewed by : Dr. Samuel 
                    Approved at: Masomo Yetutz stationary